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THE

EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPAEDIA

COMODCTKD BY

DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D.

F. R. & LOXO. A>D EDIX. AND M. R. L A.

«r rAUi^ AjcD or tir botu. 4CAiiaiv or

I o^ Tmm n>t*L mcixtt or frtncai or dbouu; or

I MWMUST MMcuim or im

I aanBi or TBt tpcunr or trb *ii>

Mcatrr or LotowM: orTm

MOBrr or new toml, or ran

iraicu.

AND or

or KMtvmtL lamom or naumuiOA ; or

t w tm MftiaiL avraar McmT or nuNicrorr ; or mc

AUUAXsorTBB muMorwcAt.

WITH TVB AMMTAMeB OV

GENTLEMEN EMINENT IN SCIENCE AND LITERATURE.

IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES.

VOLUME XL

EDINBURGH;

PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD;

AND JOHN WAIGH, EDINBURGH; JOHN MURRAY; BALDWIN k CRADOCK ;

J. M. RICHARDSON, LONDON ; AND THE OTHER PROPRIETORS.

M.DCCC.XXX.

HiMOfjr.

lotk.

rtrurtive ignownw of l>wrb»riait>. Several are alluded
to in the Sacred Scripture* ; and we are clearly of opi-
nion with Schetichrcr (Na/ural History of the Book oj
Job*) and Dr Young, (SoUa on his Paravhrase on
Job,) that the nublinie ilescrintion of leviathan given
in the 41st chapter of the book of Job, applies to no
other animal witli which we are acquainted, if not to
the crocodile. Hi* ample jaws and dreadful teeth, his
compact impenetrable scales, his large and fiery eyes,
hii strength, ferocify, and courage, agree exactly with
our best descriptions of the crocodile ; and though some
namgri might lead us to conclude that the poet was
dMOibing an inhabitant of the ocean, this objection is
trivial, when we reflect that the large rivers and lakes,
which form the ordinary habitation of crocodiles, might,
in the glowing and figurative languages of the East,
without too much hyperbolical exaggeration, be desig-
natetl by the terras dee^ and ocean.

Of the ancient classic naturalists who have written
•»* f^- on reptiles, we nee<l mention only Aristotle and Pliny.
The former, in his Hisioria Animalium, has described the
crocodile, the salamander, and someother species : but the
latter, in his Historia Naturnlis, has furnished the fullest
account of reptiles, especially in his second, eighth,
ninth, tenth, and twenty-eightli books, in which he re-
lates all that was then known, and all that was believed
respecting the crocodile, the sea and land tortoises, the
chameleon, and the basilisk. In the second book, he
shews himself acquainted with the fact, that reptiles are
not destroyed by cutting off their limbs or tail; in the
eighth, he mentions the spectacle of five living crocodiles
exhibited by .Scaurus, the edile, to the people of Rome ;
in the ninth, he describes the mode tiien practised in In-
dia, for taking turtles ; in the tenth, speaking of the
croco<lile, he tells us very gravely, that the male and
female sit alternately on the eggs laid by the latter;
and in the twenty-eighth, besides mentioning the utility
of the skink, and several parts of the crocmlile, as medi-
cines, he details at considerable length the fabulous his-
tory of the chameleon.

Among the modern writers on natural history, Ges-
ner, in part of his Historia Animalium, treats of ovi-
parous quadrupeds, though the number which he de-
•cribcs, is by no means very considerable. As usual,
with the writers of his time, he imitates the ancient
naturalists in mingling truth with fable, especially in
his second book, in wnich he describes the. chameleon.
In some respects, however, he is very judicious. He
notices the wonderful tenacity of life in reptiles, and
jvirticularly exemplifies it in the heart of the sala-
mander.

AlMMit the same time with Gesner, viz. in the middle
of the 16'th century, lived, Rondelet, a native of Lan-
gue<loc in France ; who, in his work on fishes, has de-
scribed some species of turtles as having been seen by
him upon the coast of France.

That laborious collector and compiler, Aldrovandi,
in that portion of his works which is dedicated to qua-
drupeds, describes many reptiles, especially the tor-
toise, the croco<lile, the chameleon, and the salamander;
bnt a* his accounts are derived almost entirely from
preceding authors, and ab<iund with marvellous fictions,
they are now rarely consulted.

In that part of Johnston's Historia Animalium which
is dedicated to quadrupeds, we have also an account of
•everd reptiles, among others the crocodile and the
chameleon.

In the latter end of the 17th century, Blasius pub-

llistof}

SJbbald.

RedL

Ray.

QCSMS.

Ronddct.

AUMTsadi.

BtMiitt

HERPETOLOGY.

lished his Anatomia Animalium fguris vtuiis illuslra.
la, which contains some useful observations on the
structure of reptiles. He particularly remarks the im-
perfection of their secreting organs. He also describes
the manners of a tame tortoise which lie kept, and its
remarkable abstinence.

About the same time appeared Sibbald's Prodromus
Historia naturalis Scotice, in which he describes some
species of/»/r^/M, as being found on the western coast

of Scotland. ,,. , , t.- r

In lO'S.i, Francis Redi published his Expenmenla
circa Farias res Naturaks, and about the same time his
Italian work on the same subject. The experiments
whicii Redi made on various sjiecies of tortoise, are
sufficiently cruel; but they illustrate, in an eminent de-
gree, the surprising tenacity of life possessed by these
animals. They will be particularly noticed hereafter.

Our learned and scientific countryman Ray, was
the first naturalist who gave any thing like a rational
account of reptiles, in his Sijnopsis AnimaUum. He
describes more species of tortoise than were known be-
fore ; and besides the crocodile, enumerates several
rare species of lizards.

The immortal Swedish naturalist, in his Systema LinnrEus.
Nalune, divided the class of amphibia into four or-
ders,— reptiles having feet, serpents without feet, gliding
reptiles, [mcnnles,) and swimming reptiles, (nantcs).
As the last order was afterwards removed to the class
of fishes, and some other important emendations were
introduced into subsequent editions of that laborious
work, we shall defer any observations on Linnteus's me-
thod till we notice his last and best editor, Gnielin.

In Seba's Thesaurus Nalurw, published about the
middle of last century, a considerable number of the
most remarkable reptiles is figured; and though the
engravings are not in the first style, they give a suffi-
ciently just idea of the objects which they rejircsent.

All the British species then known are described,
and some of them figured in the Briliih Zonlogy of
Pennant, published in ilW, in 4 vols. He particular-
ly describes the coriaceous, or leallierii iui tie, as having
been found on the British coast. /

Mr Pennant also contributed some of the very few
papers on reptiles, to be found in the Philosophical
Truvsaclioiis, especially a description and figure of the
Tesiudo ferox, or soft tortoise, and the T. coriacea, or
leathern turtle. Some species are also noticed in his
Arctic Zoology.

In 1755, professor Klein of Leipsic, published his Kleia.
Tenlamen ErpelologicB ; but as that work is confined
chiefly to serpents, we cannot properly do more than
notice it here.

In 1768, appeared the Specimen Medicum exhibens
Synopsin Jl^ep/jVwmof Laurenti, in which anew arrange-
ment of these animals was attempted. He distributes
all reptiles (except tortoises, which he unaccountably
omits altogetiier) into three orders, — leaping reptiles,
walking reptiks, and .-serpents. Of the first order, he
characterizes five genera, Pipct, Bvfo, Rana, Hyla, and
Proteus ; and in his second order thirteen genera, viz.
Triton, Salamandra, Catuiiverbera, Gecko, Chameleo,
Iguana, Basillicus, Draco, Cordybis, Crocodilus, Scin-
cus, Stelliu, Seps. Among the serpents he placts the
Chalcides, which certainly belong to the second as pro-
perly as the Seps.

Nine years after the " Specimen" of Laurenti, Sco-
poli published his Introductio ad Historiam Naturalem,
in which he divides the reptiles into legitimate or true,

Seba.

Penn&au

Laureati.

Seopoh.

• See his /"Ayrico Satra, published in 1T31..

1^1

HERPETOLOGY.

•aaliMl to tlM

iCmb^- tad bMtad m mmamti, nftJIm, Um lattar Una being

JbpbHM liliMk Tke tnie rcptilak,

■ipnti^ iM^wfaiM into two dMMi : Um fint

tl» wrpwn, and tW teamd tkm luMwto of

tiw^Bky. ThitkllKktMbilnpidHntotwo

Tlw in> ofder eoaayriiM dMM MfMilM ilHt Utre

tvk, m. Um aiM^ liMiriik dmnai^ and lonoiMi, iodo-

diMf aadbt lisank dw cnoMvW >(MaM. oordvli, w>

ft^^^l^^^Mfl^L f^^^^^^^M^^^ ^■^J^fciMk* T^A ^B^^riMl I

tmi tiM frngtb TW rihatrklct h* nnlu

lis pvbliihHl llii cditMO flf

In (iiMwark. whidi. tiiMgh

DO* fVMMit Bkncn cmbt m

ate aolbar. th* CBTiAttM are

. iMHilw Mtd MTpmu. Tb«

M kaiaf AiTBHlMd with Cut,

ifi or ^Ik Md baviaf ■ riBi*

•oly ISmv priadp*!
ta. «m1 Bmmm § bat

, Ltetrtm, mad lUmm t bat mart of

MbdiviiWL ""f Thi tirtniiML thirir in iNrrr
• lw««Ma, y^ M*r l«r(«M«. and
OTiIm bhmu I^errta. tb«« an

i 4Nid Uii^ addad to dtdr
•TtlM rnodina.

T«f

Thai aaft af CmmIm's w«k wludl Wjwwto the
^mm/ Am fc II, hM baao Ir—laiid. wilJb imm addt.
IkMl aMltar. by Di Tattai^. and iwMiihad in fbw

la I7M and ITBOlllH CmwI da Laamda pnblUMd
Ma Uutm^ Sttmnlt, d,, (^ml,MmmltMCfm»»irmtt Str-
pmB. Tbiawarit bad ha« pnjftf^ hyMnaaa

■M ha had aril^Md «^^imiJ,„^„fai, .* ,. t,

«mp«Mmi b«lndhH hinMN-anaUa to pwMa tht
■daBM toah. ha iliiilid I aiwimta to annaly hianhtag

^ tobapmiatohw
haw aUjr Bdbo bad toiactod hia
A ansa ihia wark w

Mifa

■M

. ^. iha wark at
•laMoTiha

ihiajMft aTnatnaa bialOTjr.
The wbalb woril m diridad

which aayba

Btanjww
into aytlaautic Hrr-

^- - will kaif Iw rvKardcd
and alcfant publicaiiana «n

into two n«ar^ mjimI

aa fUoanct and iiKlrprn-

dia-

r- ■— r — ^ — w ■ ■ ■—•■■»■•■ ^w «i III I Ha»« ■■»<» ■«a«^|i^«^

■■■^■■■■wMi, mA haniy nraAioad by aptWiiainary dia-
MMMThaflmpafU wn which wc alooa a(« at praacnt
CBwatnadt traala at nvipvoua onadnHiada ; tft^f ihaac
«• fliBi 1 nadar Chv OBDoal h^da. bwKaaM. Unnk.

ovipaitNuquadnipeda withoat tub, uid two>ftiot«d rrp- HUtoi?.
tilrt, each bring more or Icm aubdivided. Th« toctoites ^'■'V""
have only two raUbviaioot : lit. Sea lorioUet, of which
aix tpectea art daacribtd ; and 2d, FrtMk mater aiid /and
lortouet, of which tbrre are twenty ipedea noticed.
Thf Uaatda are divided into, lit, Tboae which have fiat
tail*, snd five tac» bcAaa^ indoding four apcdea of cro«
codilr. the draKoii, tupinambia, and five other cpeciea ;
9d, Tboae wbidi havo nmnd taiU, five toea before, and
a craird badi. eonptohcnding the guana, the baulisk,
the agama, and three other apccica ; Sd, Tbote that
have ronnd tail*, five toea before, and fillet* on the bel-

Sr PnnlaiBh<g eight apadea, amoM which are the cor-
yht* and ameiva; 4<h« Thoaa taat have five toe* be-
fore, but no tnn*v«ne band* on the belly, including the
chanrlcMt. the fkink, and twenty othn' tpecie* ; 2th,
Tbow iiaviug Urge iml>riaitnl icalca on the under tur-
&ce of the toea, oentaining the gecko* and two other
analeVOM apacica; 6A, Tkeaa that bavr only three or
fcw taaa^t»4^hklibdaiy the aepa anddialcidea; 7tli,
Thoaa tbaft have ma^bmwMa wing*, the dragon or dy«
ing limd ; Sth, Thoae which have three or four toea
on each fee* fool, and four or five on each hind foot,
inrlnding the aalawanifar, aak, aad finur other*.

Of the owiiowiMa quadniiiada witheuttaiU, there are
thne aobdivMiaa*: Irt, Frva harin^ their bead* and
botfaa aappdar and eluiigltd, of which there are tliir-
MM fpacw* : 9d, Tria ftop^ hafriiyt a aniall vi*cou«
•aOal aadcT each toe, eaaqmhaadaig aavan snrcie* ;
3d, Toad* with compact rooadad bodiM, of which there
•re (oortccn apeciea, iudading tha PV*. or Surinam
toad. The latt head, wbich i* not aoUiviJcd, cuntain*
only two ipedca.

Thia work af M. Liwaidi wm twwiKiil into Eng-
liA by Mr Kerr. and pifilMiiil at EJiabaiih in4 roU.
•vaita I809L

la r9t. waa ■abHAid at Eriaag the Hiiiana To-
tadiaa** of J. D. Scho*^, an esoaUent work, left inw
perfect by the death of ito iagRuoaa author.

We BHat not here onut to aatioa two ingenious pub- T»«
licatioa* in L^n on the pbnialon of rrnrti.-. i.v Tir
Robert Townaon : l*t, Dt Aa^iEut pn!
tii^ea in 1794 : aid Ud, OimnalUmti /'»^i.»..^.<« «<
lUtfdmkma AamtHianm, nubliahad at Vicnoa in
1796.

Aeoofding to Danciin, the moat natural daaaification Biongnuc
of rralilaa tM faaajrat apoaarad, ia that of M. Alcaandre
Brw^atot. paliMiiiit fa I7» iatha Magaum Emc^Iq.
prdi^mt. A» we AaP ftJIjf ajcpha thia dataifiration, after
aanag noticed the ptfaqpaliMlaiahda who have adopt-
ed aad BMdiicd it, awafcali here aMtdy give an outline *
of tUa aalhaf'a aahdlviaiaaa. Ha diatnbutni all rct>tilcs
oadar Aor geaatal aal«t : ddaawiu, or tortoiie*, uf
which ha aiakae two gaaaia, CMaaia and 'I'rttmdo, cor-
fiuuadhig rtartly thut far vtitli the iiivi*ion uf I^re-
peaa; Sd, ^aartr**, of which there are niite genera, vi«.
Crmadiluj, Igaama, Drato, SttUio, Gajta, Ckaaidio,
Laotria, Scneni and CkaJridt* ; ad, OpkidlirHM, or mt*
pmta ; aad Mb, Bmlraarma, at which Ihacc are four ge>
nets. Am, Biifa. //jda. aad gafaiaBdrg.

At the eery conaMWMMat of the prcaaat century, UinOk.
M. Latreillepabliahed //#/lif<>t'rc KalartlU dtM llrpnUi,
the amageaMat of » ticfrum that ut'La-

cepede, 'except in |>Ij — „ -.- .^^mander under the
aama head with the (Voga and toad*, and a ipecica of
Praten*, which appoart to be a tadpcjc of the water aa-
lamaadar, aad the Siraa, aatong the aarpenta. Ht*g^
neric chanctota. however, are more pred*e than thoaa

Cmv geacnl heada, toctoiaai^ Unrdi, of Lacapadaj bat hi* BMthod, on the whole, i* inferior

t.^

HERPETOLOGY.

M. Latreille aUo published to 1805. The first vokme contains some historical no- History,

Cinte.

<biv.

to that of Bronpiiart.

L'Uittoirt SatureiU det SalamanJres.

I iht jtan 1 800 and 1 803, the celebrated ana-
I and naturalist Cuvier, and his disciple and assis-
tant Dumcril, published his Legont Anatomic Comparie,
in 5 vob. 8vo. with 52 platei at the end of the filth vo-
hime. Covier had, in 1798, pul>li9hed an elementary
, on natural history, under the title of Tableau Ele-
• de VHislnirc NaturtUf des Animaux, in which
he ipive a ceneral description of reptiles.

Attached to the first volume of his Lectures, Cuvier
bai given a systematic arrangement of the various clas-
■sa and orders of animaU , and in the classification of
rtptilea, he has adopted an arrangement radically the
•BBM with that of Brongiiiart. In the first place, he
dividea reptiles into two sections; 1st, Those which
have two auricles to the heart ; 2d, Thase that have but
«ne. Each of these sections is subdivided into two or-
der*. The first order consists of those reptiles that have
a ihcU or carapace, and their jaws defended by horn.
Tbeae are the cheloniens, or tortoises. The second or-
der consists of those that have the body covered with
acales, and are furnished with teeth like the sauriens,
or liaard-s, the genera of which are, with the addition of
aeps, the same with tliose of Brongniart. The first or-
der o( the second section contains the serpents. The
•econd order comprehends those reptiles that have a
nakrd skin, feet, and gills at an early stage of their
existence. Of this order (the Batraciens) there are
three families ; liami, or frog, including the three sub-
genera of Wano, Hi/la, and Bufo; Salamandra, including
the sub-genera of Snlamandra and Triton ; and Siren.

These excellent Lectures contain a very full account
of the anatomical structure and physiology of reptiles,
and to thtm we are almost entirely indebted for our
chapters on that subject. The first two volumes of this
work were translated into English under the inspection
of Mr Macartney, lecturer on comparative anatomy in
I>on<lon, and published there in 1801.

In 1800, Dr George Shaw began his General Zoolo-
gy, which was intended to include all the genera and
species of animals at present known. The third vo-
lume contains the reptiles and serpents. In givino- our
opinion of this extensive work, we are somewhat at a
loss. As a systematic arrangement of animals, it is
very defective, and the references to other authors are
extremely few. As a popular descriptive work, it is
•carcely deserving our attention ; for, though almost all
the species are described, as well as figured, there is
scarcely any thing like a history of the species. The
arrangement is that of Linnaeus, and the characters are
in general derived from Gmelin's edition of the Syslema
Natura. The work, however, abounds in excellent
plates, the figures of which are in general well deline-
ated, and beantifully engravetl.

We neetl scarcely mention the Naluralist's Miscella-
not the same author, as but few reptiles are there

l^!rhaps the most complete account of reptiles, ud

to the prMent day, has been given by M. Daudin, who
hM b.. H-voted most of his attention to this part of
id has published several treatises on the sub-
des us Hi^oire SatureiU den Reptiles, pub-
rately, and the sequel '■•' -

oire Naturtlle des Rati
itMt'ropaMdt, he has contributed eight volumes octavo^

tices of several writers on Herpetology, and a copious ^—^r*"^
introductory treatise on the structure and physiology
of reptiles, illustrated by fifteen plates. The second
volume contains the natural history of the Chelonian
OTder, in wlixh are described fifty-seven species of tor-
toise ; and the same volume commences the history of
the Saurian order, and describes seven species of cro-
codile. In the third and fourth volumes, the history of
the Saurian order is completed, by a description of one
species of Draccena, fourteen of Tupinambis, thirty-two
of Lacerta, two of Takydromus, three of Iguana, three of
Draco, two of Basiliscus, twenty-five of Agavia, nine of
Stellio, eight ofAiiolis, fifteen of Gecko, four of Cliamceleo,
twenty -one of Scinciis, six of Seps, and four of Chalcides.
The fifth, sixth, and seventh volumes are occupied
v/ith the Ophidian order, or serpents, and the eightli
completes the work with the history of the Bathacian
order, containing a description of twenty-seven species
of Uyla, sixteen species of Rana, thirty-two of Bufo,
fourteen of Salamandra, one of Proteus, and one of
Siren. The specific characters in the body of the work
are in Latin ; but, at the en<l of the eighth volume, the
whole genera and species are arranged together, with
their characters in French, under tiie title of Tableau
Melhodiqiie des Reptiles.

Daudin's Natural History of Reptiles has considera-
bly increased the number of species, and has brought
us acquainted with many that were either not known
before, or whose place in the systematic arrangement
had not been distinctly ascertained. Though the mat-
ter of this work is excellent, we cannot, however, say
so much for the execution of the plates. The figures
are in general so deeply shaded, as to render it difficult
to observe the characteristic lines, scales, and dots, that
distinguish the species.

Dumeril, whom we have already noticed as the as- Dumeril.
sistant of Cuvier, has published two works on natural
history, which contain, among other animals, the new
systematic arrangement of reptiles. These are, ZoolO'
gie Analytique, published in 1 806, and Traile Elanen.
laire d'Histoire Naturelle, in two volumes, of which
the second contains the animal kingdom. His arrange-
ment is 60 near that of the other distinguished natu-
ralists of the French school, that we need not detail
it here, especially as we have already given a summary
view of it under the article Amphibia.

We might have extended these historical notices to a
much greater length ; but we consider it unnecessary.
VVe have given a succinct account of the principal wri-
tings on Herpetology, and shall now conclude this Part
of our subject with a list of other works, to which the
reader may refer for additional information.

On the anatomy, physiology, and classification of Reference
reptiles, see Swammerdam, Bihlia Naturae; Roesel, '" *'"^''* ""
Historia Naturalis Ranarum; Schneider, Amphibiorum ""l"*'"*"-
Physwlogiae Specimen; and his Historia Amphibiorum; ^^'
Caldesi, Osservazioni Anatomiche intorno atle Tarta-
rnghe; Spallanzani, De Fenomini della Cifcolalione;
his Tracts on the Natural History of Animals and Ve-

, «,d hjLs published several treatises on the sub- published by Sennebier ; Blumenbach, AbilduugenNl

tur Hislormcher gigetisfande ; and his Handbuch, or
inanual of the same subject ; Schmid, Historia Testa.
dtnum; Dmhenton, Dictionaire d'Erpetologie, forminn-
a part of L' Encyclopedic Metliodique; Perault, Me".
moires pour servir a I'Histoire Naturelle des Animaux;
Humboldt, Recveird' Observations de Zoologie el d'Ana-
tomtecompariei Walbaum, Chelonograpkia ; the com-

ifct-

luhed •n>««te1y and the sequel of the same workj en,

Utlejl. Ifutojre Naturelle de, Rainettes des Grenouilles el

tetLropaudt, he has contributed eight volumi

with numerous plates, to the voluminous and expensive

TOllectimi of natural history published by .Sonnini These

TBiutnes were published at different limes, from 1802

HERPETOLOGY.

ire Anatooiy tnmltCed

with 'aocfa additicBal hifauMtion

»«^;y ftwi Cavicr. and Utely paMkiwl bj Mr Uwreace ;

HmmmiT BB^« l«fMi»y 'ate fA« oW^rwyraAHirf M /»wa»p*trir

g^. iltf-ijr BwyWiw, 4w- ; wveni paper* bjr Cuvi«r, G«af.

fttogr, D— nin, Laecpsdr, &c in the Amnalet de Um-

mm £HkUwt SttmtUt, wmn pwticuVtrly in the Sd,

The Saurians, or lizards, have a lengthened scaly Hittoy.
body, feet anned with daws ; a tail that is olifii of con- — .» — '
atderablelength, and the jaws be«et with teeth. Their ^""*^
kg! an in general short, and rontequentiy their |)acc.
though quicker than that of the former order, is slower
than that of mott quadrupeds ; and as their legs are
set wide frtma the body, their progresa is unsteady and

alao owpulate, and

The

lOlk, Wk, aad IMk volanM, aad • aMle paper by oblique. The reptiles of this order alao
Mr UmC fibipMBil •■ Hm Brilkli linHa, m the •» dapoaite dMir m to be hatdiod by
v«Blh volaar a* the Ummem Tnnttttiimt. youn^ara estracCd in a perfect state.

nof theapcdH. oMMllii^

be derived from Shune**

\ eft* I Brown a

Gml Hutmy ^ Jmmitm t CMeih/e

JiKii if Hittmn ^ Cmnimm: RmmT* Ntlmnl Hm-
tan ^ Mm»t white'a Nttmnd Hktmjf tf St^.
harm, CM^Aorse Ntlmrwk diOm Sankgm. «r hb
Hutorim Jn^iiMrii i H Pmkm Smiitim / Bingley'a
^asaaW AharawW. weL ui^ fnitmX. Pmtm Ankim,

H Pittium
W Bki^Wfkf, weL iii^ Pai
kaVayMHorTkHMbor
OKHar. Cwk.

Of the Saurian order, Uaudin reckons sixteen ge«
nera. which ve ahaU divide, with Dumeril, into two
Sections, Pktni cmnlala, or flat tailed, and Tereiicau-
4ato, or raMDd tailed. Of the fldt-taile<I Saurians we
have fiMor genera : Cncodilut having a flattened head,
the acalai on the beck of unequal aiae, and the hind
§Mt pakHted; Drtacvae, haviQ^ • aquere head, and
the toca diatinct ; BmiHimu, havii^ equal dorsal scalea
and a creeled ridge «lang iIm hMk, aappaftcd by bony
ravs, and TiifBaamUt, fiaeing equal aeuea b«t a* dor-
aaltidge. Of the inuadMMMaaclion there are twelve
genera, vis. Igmm, having a crM en the beck, and a
on die throat ; Drmeo, having the sidca
vilbaaBhraMafeaenibling win^; Agama,

^am, CMCLomanew Saoaiaiia, and BaTaactaiia.
Thm CaKunnuuea haw* a ahavt, lUik, neal badjr,
veeed vkh a beany ahall er nMahMaaeMai «■!. TW

caly body and tail, an innatcd itiroat.
and thin, aach fhraiahrd with five
toaa : StdVe, haviqg a spiiiaaa tail co-
fad acales; CAa sMfco.havMiglaet famwd
Gteko, having a tbidk body, and a throat
igdihtad few inflation ; Auolu, having a
bad|v. aad rBlarahle throat ; Lactria, having a
ad, bat no inflation of the throat ; Tuiifdro-
imuk havii^ the body long and thin, and a row o(' very
■naM granular pore* along each thi^ ; Sumet*, having
a len^ aealy boily and tail, and distaact h[ga ; Sept and
Ckakmkt, egreeuig in having a vety long md Mender
body, with either two or faur very saonll abort fret,
and da

air very sai
partienkra,

which will be

tdMhranv*.

• — . ,m z~ -> A. ■ ■ *■ •"* ■*

they lanHin nr HwanlnaML Tnav agga aro cava
wiifca«Ml.andawilif riilby«haft5£lahitfaa«

hi d» *m whiafa they aro •• pMsanra Ihraagh Mfc.
TWniiliMni arderie divided by DaaKiUhMe I

t tails are Ihla,
I oonMfeaseu i a
bro feet, termi-

irderie divided by C

rarodi/ bntas
aniy ana species, and

„ \ the fhanh only by a

Ibw aiintB dMaraneea. wa shaU conthMe the tBviatan
af CnvkvhMatwoganaea. Omimm tmi Tmmda : the
Bf Ina aaa tartaiaea, er tnttlea. which
the fceni rather of
r, m the lor-

la tha ihM order, B*TaACUNs, the body is naked, BuracUak
L c aoearad naithar with Aell nor scales ; the feet aro
alwaye diadnct and vithaal daws ; the two eoMa do
noc enter iaia perfcei eopulation, and the young ud>
ticrgo a netaaMepnoenu

Tina order ie anbdivtdsd into two acctions, those with-
out t«ik and tboee with taila, and m eech qf thcae aec-
tions ere rerkoned thtea genan.

The aenaan of the Batrariaaa without tails are //«
ar lna>n«g, having a lang body a little i
ahaM fladnr tengna ; ftur toaa on the faro feet,
natad by MnlicniBr knobs ; Ramm, or flrog, difeing
from the fottaer in having tlie tons pointed and not
hnahbad; and Bmfii, at toed, having a thick liroad
body heart with warty tubercks, espMiaUy two upon
tite neck. The genera belonging to the second sec-
tion en iTafasiMiidi a. havini^ a long body terminate*!
by a tail that k gaaerally cyltiidrical, three or four toea
est the ISare ihe^ and five on the hind ; Proleat, having
a long body tamiinelad by a compraaii i fin-like uil.
thraa laas en the fbro leet, and two on the hind, with
peraiaiani hianAi*; aad Sinn, having a kngtben-
cd body, a oompfaaaad flai-like tail, fore feet fttr>
nished with ckwa, bnt na bind feet and persistcnC

HERPETOLOGY.

Part I. ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF REPTILES.

^^^^^^ Hatino now pven « ffeneral description of Teptiles,

.lliplpZw and explwneH the clMsificstion which we intend to fol-

Iscr of low in the sub!*<iuent paRcs ; we shall proceed to ex-

■•^•**«» hibit a comprehensive view of their anatomy and physio-

'- r - logy, punuing the same order which wc have obserred

in tlie oomparative part of our Anatomy. f

CHAP. I.
Of the Motions of Reptiles.

The organs of motion in reptiles do not differ so
much from those of quadrupeds as some other psrts of
their organical structure, though there is considerable
variety in the several tribes a( this class.

The l)ones of most species are as firm as those of

auadrupeds ; but in the smaller reptiles, as the frogs,
ley are more cartilaginous. It is asserted by some
naturalists, that the bones of tortoises have no medul-
lary cavities ; but in the larger lizards, these are suffi-
J^TJL ciently apparent The skeleton of a Saurian reptile is
F^l. figured in Plate CCXCV. Fig. 1.

* The skull of reptiles is generally very small in pro-

**""■ portion to the bmly ; but in many species, the jaws are

proportionally very large. The cavity of the skull is
cither exceedingly small, or not half filled by the brain.
A remarkable change takes place in the head of the cro-
codile in proportion as the animal advances in growth
after its extrusion from the shell. When first hatched,
the skull is thick and rounded, and the forehead pro-
minent, and the eyes are nearly at an equal <listance be-
tween Uie fore and back parts of the head, hi proportion
aa the animal grows, the frontal prominence gradually
disappears, and the jaws lengthen forwards; and in the
adult state, the head is quite flat, and the eyes three times
as far distant from the snout as they are from the back of
Uie head. ,

The skull of the crocodile resembles a truncated py-
ramid, of which the cavity for the brain forms the base;
» that of frogs and salamanders is of a form between the

cylindrical and the prismatic ; that of tortoises consi-
derably resembles that of the crocodile. The cavity of
the skull, in reptiles, is of an oblong form, and nearly
of an equal breadth. Of the jaws and teeth, we shall
speak under the organs of digestion.
Votcbraw ^"'' resjicct to the vertebral column, we may re-
mark, that the number and proportions of its compo-
nent vertebnc var_y mo^e in this class than in all the
other vertebral animals. The tortoises have generally
•even vertcbrr in the neck, from eight to eleven in the
b«dt, and generally three or four in the sacrum. In
thit genus all the vertebrae, except those of the neck
and tail, are immoveably fixed with what is analogous
to ribs, m the horny shicUl with which tliey are cover-
e<l. The crocotlile has seven cervical, twelve dorsal,
|ivc lumbar, two sacral, and thirty-four caudal verte-
bra; but m the other saurians, the proportional num-
bers var)- in almost every species. Frogs and toads
having no ril«, the ordinary, division of the vertebral
column cinnot »)e distinctly made. The common frog
hai in a I ten vertebne, and the pipa, or Surinam toacf,
naa m all eight '

The muscles attached to the spine also vary consider- Anatomy
ably. In tortoises, where only the head and tail are and Physio-
moveable, the spinal muscles are confined chiefly to '""Jlf
these two organs, and those of the neck possess many /^P"'^^
peculiarities. The chief motions of the neck in this ~ * ~
genus are those by which the head is thrust out from
the shell, and drawn back within it The spinal mus-
cles of frogs and salamanders are few in number, ex-
cept that in the latter, the crocodiles, and other saurians,
the muscles of the tail are proportionally numerous and
powerful.

The thorax is very differently formed in the different Thorax,
orders. In the tortoises, the sternum or breast bone is
lost in the breast plate or lower shell, while the ribs are,
as we have said, firmly cemented in the shield. Of the
saurians, the crocodile has the anterior part of the ster-
num bony and prolonged, so as to receive the clavicles ;
while the rest is cartilaginous, and extends backward
to the pubis, furnishing eight cylindrical cartilages that
surround the belly. The ribs of this animal are twelve
in number ; but the two most atlantal or forward, and
the two most sacral or backward, are not imited to the
sternum. In the guana and tupinambis, only six of the
ribs are united to the sternum. The chameleon has a
small sternum, but all the ribs are made to meet round
the thorax, by means of intermediate cartilajfles. In the
salamanders the ribs are extremely short, so as to appear
like appendages of the vertebra. The frogs have a
sternum though no ribs.

In most of the reptiles, there is little peculiar in the
muscles of the thorax and abdomen. In the tortoises,
hoH'ever, where the ribs are immoveable, and where
the place of abdominal muscles is supplied by the breast-
plate, the muscles which would be attached to the ster-
num are inserted into the pelvis, upon which they act;
and in frogs which have no ribs, the muscles are united
to the sternum by strong membranes.

The superficial or glenoid cavity, in which the hu-
merus or large bone of the atlantal or anterior extremi-
ty moves, is in reptiles formed partly by the scapula
and partly by the clavicle. The scapula has no spme ;
it is elongated, and retracts and becomes thicker to-
wards its neck. The clavicle is simple, short and flat.
In tortoises, the disposition of the bones that form the
shoulder is most remarkable, and is thus described by
Cuvier. Besides the scapula and the clavicle, there is
a bone which he calls the fork ; one of the bones stretches
from the base of the rudiment of the first rib, to which
it is attached by a ligament as high as the glenoid ca-
vity, -where it is intimately united with the other two.
The second bone, which appears like the continuation
of the former, is attached by its other extremity to the
breast plate, and this extremity is bound by strong liga-
raents to that of the bone behind it. These bones thus
united are slightly curved outward, so as to leave be-
tween them, and those on the opposite side, an oval
space for the passage of the gullet, the windpipe, and
numerous muscles. Lastly, the third bone is placed
below the abdominal and thoracic viscera, ricarest tlie
breastplate, and is extended from the glenoid cavity as
far as the abdomen. It gives attachment to numerous
muscles, and resembles the scapula in every thing but si-
tuation. See Cuvier, LegonsdAnat. Comparee, Sec. IV.

Atlanta] ex-
tremity.

HERPETOLOGY.

TU* hoMtdt pmwrfi tteAiag itourluUe except in
tht lartnMi. where it ia unitad Mowwhat in the aao-
ner of bird*, with the inqwik, the ckvidc, and the
toA.

In tba toctviae trdica, nwMraw aad atta^g miMck*
ts iIm lanBanH ; wbOa is fkopa awnr af the
whkfa are fcaad in thk rcgiaa. ui qoaanpada,
arc wanting.

Tiic dkt^ part af the atlanu] aatfcmity, or what
flDB|MntiT« tfHCaoMto dMua to call the tatt-mwu, caa<
aMto aa in aMadnyada af two boaa% aimt in tha frqg
and load. Tbaaa at* analqgBW to tlw ladioa and nha,
lMtlka*aM«mlpaadi«itiaaol'ainiebii«. In |iaitki»>
Ur, the tortoiaea have then to fiud in a atate oTpeaaik
to twina the action of ihaaa iiiliaiiliia to

ADMumtr

and Pby'ti.

ulofQr of

Bepiilo.

NtW

WialMMllidlhahandar paw ia in
daiafcljr variad. l^tU aaa tottlaa
whole wjtfaaau liioa^gh.LiiiniiliBg, within af

In4kt I ■■rill it ia digitafl«l.aDd
) of i«« divtaioM^ in othora of fcur, thiOT,
andai
dtmi, inaaaifiiatednawa,

I and anaonr of ikrir diraiana, at* adapted to
tWnriena acliana gT walking, rlwliif. gnMping,

l?pel«iiw Md earadaBy thai pal of k which

ttothnpnhi^wafeoaaiiMbla aae. and it ia

patna la

tupinambes are tlie beit leapers among the saurian* ;
and ftoga and toada, though tbay cannot walk well, ate
excellent juntper*.

A great variety of reptilea awim well, especially tur-
tle«i crooodilea, and fitiga. The only apecies that can
be aaid to fly ia tlie dra^jn, wlioae motion through the
air raiawiMai that of the flying iquirreU.

CHAP. II.

Of Semsaliom im RtftUm.

Aa the caTity of the cranium in reptilea ia very amall, Bmu.
and not nearly filled by the brain, it followt that the
aiae of thia organ ia very inoooaiderable. It is calrula-
tod that, in tlietwtle, the brain ia little larger than ^j^
part of tiie whole body, thoogb in the frog it ia propor-
tionally much lamr, being aa 1 to 172. It oonairta
chiefly of fivenMndad enuneneaa, without convolutiona,
and with a aMoth baae There ia no €orpiu cattotmm.

owe: thoM taaa are fowvally fomialMd with yonwa, mom vmniii, or mr6or mim, and what are called
Iwe digitated pawB,am»iwiii^ to then— bar, tiM lAMaan of the optic nrrvca, are aituated behind the

oervea tn

The thigh bone of rmlilaa ia dadar te thai ef
anhMl^ cxcrnl that it haa a daohla anwatia «Mfoor
leaa wwhalil^ |wea« lOiitm a conwity forward towaaJa
Ae tihU cr dirtal eitnouty. and a eonoavity towardt
the paltia. In the tortoiaea it haa well marked tio-

The diatributien of the

poculiaritiee.

The nwnlMr of ipinal nervea in the different ordcra Nwtab

and tiibca of reptilea, ia proportional to ilic number of

- "^ of which tike apinal column i« coropoked, and

ia ao littlo diflerant (hm tnat in man

tlui it need not be here deacribcd.

Thenarreaoftheatlantal, or foreleg*, are derived fVom

the oarvieal nervea. and ■oroetimea the tluraal, uniting to

fenn a brodttal plexua or net -work. Those of tortgiaea

m» aatitnaely ooaiplea ; thoae of iiaanU mere simple ;

end tlwe of Craga proceed (Voin a very thick cord

•t ihaae aio wantfag in liaeeda and ftMa. waning fttan betwe«i the aeooi>d and third vertebral,

ly ronnd. *Napt_in the Snriaan toad. In and tbrwnng tiM largcat nerve in the body.

The nervea of the aacnl rxtmnity in liaarda, after
aaaagiagftoan the pelvia, CDrmaaingie cord, which
rune down the inatde of the thigh, anathcnor supplie*
the leg and toaa. In frug* this lane cord paaaea to the
poatariar part of the thigh, like the adatic nerve in

itiawnchflattaniJ. TiMroarvfcw
tn thenwdaaof tJuawgiun

The leg ia compeaad ef a tibia and 6lMila,
thronghoat tlMir vlHle Irngth. eaorpc in froga. in which
Ihey m aaitad. WImbi arparoto, they are nearly of
'are artienlatad ianMdiatrly
■MMclea of tlw leg ate oMat
lft«V«. Inthefiamrv.they
italheortofawinaungi in tha leOat; ihey

roalf of the

eqaal aiae, and in general
with the thigh bone. The
W— hahltiTthettleaaa

kgh..

Thebeaeaaadi

MwiMirf

r foal the very diflanat ibrai
linha of rrptilea, their prafiawi»e
~ af alaadhc vary
In

><< the haalar feet
>of llMpawa.

of the

laafl ^

gftMOAm

kind of

npin aatateof re«

The tnrtlea rather
hnttattoiaoawalkwoi
Bwve

m n
tonlaa rcat aa
pawt. while the
J'ttle ahove the

flk*MHa

The laAroeieae, md aapraally flwea, lert in a and
Mnkim paatara. with tha iw* pan of their body that
I on the fiar* Irga. Thoae liaarda. whoaa bodiaa riaoi
> the cAo/cadn. are coiled

liaBg with ipeat i^lity, while
a clinch wal^ if we eaeaat tho

walk hkeaaala s

alewly. Soane aanriana

othrra, aa the rro-

Few

Ito^paara that laptilea peeana all tlia five
flmnd ai tiM other vertebral aniaials, thouf^h in very
proporti' ' - ' ilegrrea. Tbeir sight ap-
to bo very •. : tlirir eves are in general

and ptoaiincaL Tha senae of bearing, if we may
Craai their want of asternal car>. i> much leaa
Tact than that o4 aigltt. Tbeir smelling is suppoaad
a aiailar reaaon. and from the little u*f they «>•
poor tu aMke of thia aanae in aadiiiiK' "I, to be

atiU leaa acute; and It ia doubted w1h< . i if them

peaaaaa the frculty of tasting at all. With respect to
lOMch, it ia prohablr that tha«e whidi iiave son skitu
digitalod leet, puaacaa considerable acutenesa in
while iluM which have Md!\ . slu Ily, or co-
la oo*> <l more especiii ties, are

capable of ci'.:^. ..^ touch in a %ti> ■ „■ . '.i^rre, if
at all. We shall essminc the organs of all these acnaea
in the order which we liave li>i<' ')<»"< in the article
AxsTowv, and nemplificd in ( . except that

we shall defer the orcntu <if Ut..i.K. -t they deacrve

byiuprahadetttL

thai name, to the head of /a/rgvawUee

hii'li All reptilea appear to noaarsa a tmwue
land anoh in aubatanoaandoagreeof mobiliti

bat it varie*
Hity. In the tor-

* to Ifca twaiftk

rkf Caviar oo lbs fhfotogf of tbacraas4ila, lewkich
I iMiaaan ia tkis plaea.

HERPETOLOGY.

llOBillg.

toitea, it ii covered on the upper part with long soft

cVmc papillff. (tivin* it the appearance of velvet. In . . . .,

crocodiles these papilla' are extremely short, and more till these have been removed. .

like wrinkle.. In these animals it is entirely fleshy, In the tortoise tribes there is a bony ring, composed

but is w completely attached by the point and edges of thin plates at the anterior part of the sclerotic coat;

tothebMilarorlowerjaw, as to admit of scarcely any and a similar structure occurs ■" «•„<,«. rhamelenns.

singular species the ■proleus, in which the eyeballs are Anatomy
so covered with the integuments, as not to be visible and^Physio-

Reptiles.

oiotion ; and it was long doubted whether crocodiles
had a tongue. In stclliones, again, it is very moveable ;
and in the common lizards, and the tupinambes, it is
considerably extensile. In these latter reptiles, the
tongue terminates in two long flexible cartilaginous
poinU ; and in the skinks and geckos it is notched at
the tip.

The tongue of salamanders is rough with papulae, but
that of frogs and toads has a smooth slimy surface. The
chameleon has the tongue of a cylindrical form, covered
on its surface with deep regular transverse furrows ;
and it is so constructed, as to be easily thrust out of the
mouth, to collect the proper food of the animal.

The organs of smelling are imperfect, and consist
diiefly of cavities opening in front of the snout, and
communicating backward with the mouth, lined like
the nostrils of mammalia with a pituitary membrane,
for the ramification of the nerves. This membrane is
in several species divided into several folds, supported
by bony plates. Tortoises have three of these. The
external nostrils are furnished with muscular fibres, by
which they may be occasionally contracted and dilated.
The nostrils are very close together in crocodiles, while
in MHne of the other saurians, as the tupinambes, stell-
iones, and chameleons, tliey are more apart and late-
ral. In the tortoises, they are very small and close to-
gether ; and they are also extremely small in salaman-
ders. In short, from the small extent of the nasal ca-
vities in reptiles, compared with those in quadrupeds,
it appears that they are rather organs of respiration
than of smelling.

These animals have, as we before hinted, no auri-
cles or external ears, though their internal organs
of hearing are sufficiently apparent. These consist of
a tympanum, (except in the salamander,) and a laby-
rinth with their attending bones and cavities. In tur-
tles the membrane of the tympanum is cartilaginous,
and covered externally by the integuments. The tym-
panum contains only a single little bone, and from it
proceeds a Eustachian tube. In this order there are
semicirailar canals. The saurians, with the exception
of the salamander, have the same parts, and several
little bones, besides several soft stony substances in the
vestibule. The crocodile is the only instance among
reptiles, in which there is any appearance of external
passage to the organ of hearing. The batracians, espe-
cially frogs, have a large membrane of the tympanum,
level with the surface of the bo<ly. The tympanum
contains two cartilaginous ossicles, and has a wide open-
ine of the Eustachian tube next the throat. The ves-
tibule contains rudiments of those soft stony substances
jurt mentioned, as occurring in the saurians. In the
nalamander, the vestibule contains one of these stony
bodies, and the oval hole leading to the labyrinth is
doaed by cartilage. In general the vestibule and mem-
branous canals in these animals are much smaller than
the bony or cartilaginous cavities in which they are
contained. '

^Therejs, we believe, only one instance in reptiles
- eyes appear of little use. This is in that

where the

in frogs, chameleons,
the guana, and some other saurians. The iris is vari-
ously coloured, but generally yellow, red, or brown.
The pupil varies in figure. In the crocodile it resem-
bles that of the cat, being vertically oblong; in frogs
and geckos it is rhomboidal ; and in tortoises, the cha-
meleon, and common lizards, it is round. The cry-
stalline lens resembles that of fishes in its spheroidal
figure.

Besides the two eye-lids common to reptiles, and the
superior classes of animals, the former have, like birds,
a third, or nictitating membrane, which is vertical in
tortoises and crocodiles, but horizontal in frogs. In
the crocodile there is a bony substance in the upper
eye-lid. In the common lizards, instead of eye-lids,
there is a kind of circular veU extended before the eye,
with a sphincter muscle by which it may be closed.

There is considerable variety among reptiles with
respect to the lachrymal gland. Turtles have it very
large, and situated at the lateral or posterior angle. In
the fresh water tortoises again, as well as in frogs and
toads, there are two small blackish glands.

Thus it appears that the eyes of reptiles are well
adapted to perfect vision, and provided with ample
defence against the too stimulating power of the rays
of light. It is well known that many of them are very
quick in perceiving their prey ; and some species, as the
green lizard and green frog, appear extremely fond of
the brightest light. Some few, however, shun the
day-light, and seek their prey chiefly by night, having
for this purpose the power of contracting or dilating
the pupil in a very considerable degree. It is said that
the chameleon can move both eyes at once, in different
directions, a circumstance scarcely noticed in any other
animal.

The general phenomena respecting the nervous sys- e
tem of reptiles, and the influence of the brain on the *^"'»"'"»*
other organic functions, cannot properly be considered
till these functions shall have been examined. The
remarkable tenacity of life in reptiles, their great re-
productive power, and the phenomena of the torpid
state which they undergo, all of which are more or less
connected with the nervous system, must also be de-
ferred till we have treated of the functions of circula-
tion and respiration.

CHAP. III.

Of Digestion in Reptiles.

Digestion in reptiles is divisible into what we may Preheijsio
call prehension, deglutition, and digestion, properly so
called. * We shall here consider the organs and phe-
nomena of these functions, in the order in which we
have named them.

We have seen that the mouth of the chelmians is fur- Jaws,
nished with mandibles. These close over each other
somewhat like the parts of a box, and frequently have
their edges so deeply indented, as to have led to the
mistake that some tortoises have teeth. The homy

^."K.i::a?s^ z'Ss'Tcst.rJ.';ixz'S^Lrj:is'S^-:^s.^ """ •""

HERPETOLOGY. 9

m^tmr part of th* ■■niiiTilir n Mitimrtwi with the bony Jaw, Gwrnna thera am becidn teedi trt in the palait*. All Aratamy
mA rv<w- nnvly in tk» how ■uuner in wWcli Um beef oT the thcw tnth wwible the cutting and pointed tcctb of «nJ Phyrio-

Kry borie if nniwd to lk» cafia ham : (Sa* Mammalia and the jwiiiarinin qaadniped*. vaA Mcm entirely adapted J!!^|,*f

*B^ bidwinarjaw there wan to wmm^ aad maining prey. The number of tc«th it ^,?~7^

VtmiMAaTMi ., , _ _. ,

bone. Tne lower Jaw iaaMfaaklHl with aahhi iiuwatMt ia Ae awne »pcciw, and evidently de-

MlaMM»Qkfy bane. TheMwarjaw iaaraeaMaa wita aahfci iiuwaiMf m taa awne »pectw, and evidently de-
tha tkull. ^7 Maaaa of a baajr cafaMMoa of Iha lanar. pmdaon tlMa|eertha«>inMl.
Tka lower fm tmki b ■■ vmAt, and ili OMliaa eon. ABoof tka Bi<r«eiaa«, the frog* have taeth only in
Mia of little BoratHBopoiiacaKlrfntting the MMiadk the mmmt jaw; aalaaaandera have them in both ; but
Mmt of thiaarderpoaNia great atraiKth inihe Java. toada nava tealh Im neithar jaw. All theae tribe*, how-
Tar Ibw% <■ aaaj of the gafiam, caprcUlly in the ever, hara tbeea in the nalate. The tiren haa teeth at-
[ffaniiWi tPt-. * — J ^ — "-^ '—I* — ' tschedtothaioiMraaifteaarthejawa.

fel MMit iiiilanraa. baaat wMl oaaHnaa iHvaf and Tht trgmmi a^ itMhiilitu in reptile* have a conn- oi^ii^imb.

•tep taath. !■ awat af tha lyieiaa, tfca lawer jaw drraUa varie^ mpentof attMCtarr. We have already

k v«««dbla aa iha mffir, m Iha aaaal ommmt ; bat ia briaiv aoticaa the toague andcr the orgma of *ema>

ib CMeadb Aei* ta ■ pacaHwity la thia articalaliaa tiea. Dot bhm bete treat of that organ and iu appenda-

wftfc> mmiut fdtalar aariaa, ayaaPy aa it haa baa gaaatariatar length.

oMdr a MfcJKt ct dvpala aaMaf aaf raliata ftaoi tba In the GMaataM, the taagtw ia ■mall and pyrami- T«ngBa.

dal, with the baw tmned baAwarih. and the poinf

Hendotaa waa. wt belkwe. the int to aaaert. dut ftrwankb Tba at kj/otia, or boae of the loague, va.
I>a aaperfcnr c^Ttfaa uaeadlk wat aieeaaMe oa the riaaiadJhrtpt apmafc It ia mora or lata eart^agi-
lawar. w1>fai ha Muiiaaad to befaad. Thia iniialna oooa.

wMbwvibv AraMWaad ftiny. aad oToDarae by Tba BMcbniaa of the taegaa m the Chaadcon ia

itadf ia not larger than
ddi faaarai andaBt Ofdaiaa a/ the MMbdi^ af a goaaa qoB, bat ta Ave or atx incfae* long, growhy

caRad ia ^aaatian ; btaadar tavarda ita eaunnity, where it it cevrred
af the Praach •eadaaMma balefad they a ghMtaaaa aMttcr. IntheaaaalattaaeftiMaaiaMd,lhia

lla dhiaidhj. The ■ate raoan ab- onaa liaa withia a Ataih at the hotiabi of Aa
pwerar. aaev BMft the as* aad ia ao oontiartWI aa to appav not mow than
onhr ao Ar aa ratpacto tka ia langlh ; hot whca the aumal ia in aaarch of

MM •appaaaoa waa wreog onnr ao nr aa ratpacta taa la langla ; Dot wnca tae anaaai n m aaarcn or prnr.

la«er>rw.M,bfcct. both the jaara aaa aMMMhlaaa the taa«ae ia, bir pecaliar maadea. danod oat to tia

each other. Thia piraMar aititallhii i* weN ila<ii» loMth w« hero dracribad, aad catching the iaaacta oa

lad by Ffe. S. afPlata CCXCr. *«■ which il ap- wtibuhe rhiwilf fcad^ by ■

pam. that d» aealatiar aatnaddaa af the laland aacntiaB. ia Mria wkhdrowa hNo

rtAi* lad by Ffe. S. of Plata CCXCr. *«■ which il ap- wtich the cfaMalaaB Ihadi. by nmaof ha

<XXcv. pan, that the piaHtiar aiUaadliaa af the bland aacntfaa. ia i«ria wkhdrawa hNo the maoift

'^^ hMdwi af the appar >w baaa ate wcaiwd bla hal. ia awqr of the nplfla^ the tongaa ia

loira hi iho laarar, ae aa to adadt af A«a and artaa daady af a ihkk j|landalar maai^ Ifanaad of a'firaaft

rive aadaa. floe iiaaahi ^ Mmumm, tarn. iL pi 90. munber of naol pipoa, oniicd towarda the haae, and
Weaf«not,bowav«r,to«apMor. thatthemarkw divotgiag lowarda the aarthct of the tangae. In ftct,
of tl^ ftaeadBa oaovae apoa Iha cnahna. Tae fact ia waecMaathatonfaoftnoaaaalivary gland, andiha

ia, that the cianiam ia ««ry taaaO, aaai b ao fixed with* mawaalivaproparad m k iapowvd o«it l>y nmnerea* or4>
in the liianiliaa of the appar jaw hana. at to aawo fleai aleag the Mn of the organ. Thi» i» panii-utarly

with tyalaMv; the' arlMhdaa af the two jawa the caae in the CWoat— », and many of tbo .Soomia* ;
Kcoio of the other ONrianf and a aiiaHar aUBctaitk Hiaagi <aa ha aaleai, areraai

IthecnaMMa. Kcoioof the other ONrianf aad a aiiaHar aUBctait^ Hiaagi <aa ha aaleai, preraai

—or 10 — aJBwy tkalolfaa iladha to that ia tho in the BMynoaot.

c«Madfc;baliaaMBy thakaglhafthojawa,andeB(»* In thoaa rapdha tfMt hare a aealy toi^ao^ there are

iiaawtfj the npaahtg *r the aieath, ia rary laiaiif two nblei^ lA iKllhr) glanda.

aMa IWlowerjavhi maaof Ihaaeaahaaiaii raiy What ia cJhd tho alaiyi i . or ewaWow, ia in rrptilaa

fflii. rowiitiB^ of from eight to twalvophewb la aal caiBy dklai«aUHd flam dw gallet. to which it

neiaOy of ate fkean with that of the galbt.

That partjrfthe Jawa whfch riirriniaditothaioal, Tho «det in rcptOao ia aevhr ofoqn^ diameter Ount.

haa a ro^ dMneat orgrrr af rMaad^r hi the weeval thro^gklli vfaolc Icagnl, and thm diaailar ia greater

ardan af raptflafc It fa la ii it rihfaa iatho Bi^aai 1 1# ; io pwawthai totho aloaiach than hi |Bedni|iiiii In

CMo- the dihiifiai, ita iatomal aaHhe* it aamathaM be.

hilh>Sbarieai.iheaaalaifcnaadbydW tal with haid Imw oaaltal ^piDa^ with dMir paiota

af tho brachaa 4ftfte jaw la geaefaOy vary ijiailad haatwJ^ appraiU} fcr Iha patpoae of pre-

ftoaa the ataaaach. In

1W aMKka MtadM to the jawa are awH paawW

dda aider. ewaOovhw i* alw ftcilitolad by tha aeiioa
ia *a nil ihii aad Aaariaai. In tho ftriaar. the of iiiiiiilii plaead along the neck, aad aaartad mto

the galat, aa well aa by the bene of the toagve and ita

>: while ia the hi- iho galat, aa well aa by the boae of the toagve i
tor. the digaairic and dk aioaaHar appmr amal pram! amaoHb Tha aama laufhanii it evidaat in tlie Jlo-

nenl. IW ftrte with wWch aoaae taitfea eiaao the fiaiiaai, anadrfly ia tha l^n aad toada ; and in all

jawo to aatoaiddng. It ia eota aaaartod, that what tkiidaiadtorearaaaailyhitbamlletaaaMrDBalonfi.
acMo doaad wkk tiohim. it i* anpaaaiMrtoapBntham ; tadhal ftMa. which, by admitting a eonaidartUe de>
aad dtot ovmi vfcaa the head fa cat of . the eaameliaa greeofnaaaainn lathalaha,aathelbodiiniiaathroiM4

la the Irta^ aa the (bod paaai through

I figur
i#tho kAatotfaaa hi ito ■andHilii. " ' ' ' dhaawieML fai the d)ftnat ordcn^ trOiaa, md tpecirt.

af Armoactoo canahaMa to act fbr laaay hoan. A 6, gaady fccDJtatodnJalirian

e large rape, by The atoaHcA of rrpalM fa of very variooa figure and smm,^

ADtheSaardHwhoTotoMhiBbalkjnn^ariiBtfw Hi «kt Ofciimr thij oiyi ^prnt m If dotddod ba^k
▼ou IT. ravr l. a

R«i*ok*.

FLAtt

CCXCV.
Ki,.4.

Fig. A, «•

ri^T.

ViC^B-

Kg. 9, 10.

Pi«. II.
Pwdof

upon iuelf; and Uiat portion -wliich is opposite the
priuci|>al curvature, has its sides tiiicker than the rest,
and is internally pU teil with lonRitudinal folds. The
insertion ol' the Rullet in these nniinals is distinguished
by the sudden dilatation formed by the stomach Among
the Silurians, the crocodile lias tJie stomach of a globu-
lar figure, tlividcd, however, into two unequal portions.
Tilt stomach of the Guana is oval, and very long, with-
out ctirvature, and not easily distinguished from the
guUet In the Tupinambis the stomach forms a long
tube, bent nearly into a circle. The stomach of the
Chameleon begins by an inflated portion, then takes the
form of a long cylinder, and bends back upon itself.
In the Dragon, this organ is strait, and has nearly the
shape of a pear. In the Datracians, the form of the
stomach resembles that in tortoises, but is proportionally
more dilated. In Salamanders it is long, not much ex-
panded, and strait, except near iU farthest extremity.

Tlie intestinal canal of reptile* is not easily to be di-
■vided into small and large by any particular appendage,
like the cacum of qnadrupeds; though the distinction, in
point of diameter, holds in most species. All the Chela-
titans, most of the Saurians, and all the Balracians ex-
cept the Siren, have a long small intestine inserted into
one extremity of a short great gut, into which it is
itsually prolonged, so as to form a valve. In the Igua-
na only is there any thing like a coecum.

The intestines of reptiles in general are very short.

In the Clielonians, what may be called the small in-
testine, is largest at its juncture witli the stomach, and
gradually diminishes in diameter till it terminates in
the great intestine, where its diameter is only about
one-fourth of that of the latter. The coats of the in-
testines in this order are thicker than in those of most
other reptiles. See Fig. 8.

In the nilolic crocodile, the small intestine is divide<l
into two portions, of which one is of greater diameter,
and has thinner coats than the other. This Intestine is
remarkable for a thin layer of a pulpy glandular sub-
stance, between the muscular and the villous coats.
The large intestine of the nihlic crocodile is cylindri-
cal; but in another species, the gavial, it is pear-shaped.
In the lizard tribe, the large intestine is cylindrical, and
of much greater diameter than the rest of the canal.
In the chameleon, the whole intestinal canal is nearly of
equal diameter, except at one part, where it forms a
sort of valve. In the dragon, the intestines make about
two circumvolutions and a half, before terminatuig in
the anus. In most of the smaller saurians the coats of
the intestines are thin and transparent.

The most remarkable differences in the intestinal ca-
iial of the Batracinns, are those which take place in the
same species at different periods of its existence. In the
tadpole, or young animal, the intestines are very long,
small, and nearly of equal diameter, without any val-
vular distinction, and have numerous circumvolutions.
I/i the perfect animal, the whole intestinal canal is
much shorter, the distinction into small and large in-
testines very evident, and the circumvolutions much
fewer. In frogs, the large intestine is cylindrical ; in
toads, it is more or less conical. The difference of dia-
meter between the large and small intestines is most
evident in salamanders, whereas in the siren this dis-
tinction is scarcely to be noticed. See Fig. 11.

The food of most reptiles consists of worms, insects,
and other small animals, which they swallow whole.
Of course tlie process of digestion takes place almost
cDtirely in the stomach, where the gastric juice is evi-
dently possessed of considerable solvent power. Some

1 1 E R P E T O L O G Y.

Anatomy

and Physio*

logy of

Reptiles.

Abstinence
of reptiles.

of theCheloni^in order, indeed, feed partly on sea-plants,
thence called turtle grass, which they bite ofl" with their
horny mandibles, and swallow whole.

Many of these animals are extremely voracious, and
will gorge themselves with living worms or insects,
till they become nearly incapable of motion, and till the
animals they have swallowed crawl again out of their

mouths. . ., . „

The process of JcgZ«//Vwn, in most reptiles, is effect-
ed by repeated contractions and dilatations of the throat
and gullet, which are very evident to an observer. It
is supposed by some physiologists, that part of the
prey in some species undergoes a degree of solution in
the gullet ; but this seems to us not very probable.

Though the solvent power of the gastric juice in
reptiles is undoubted, its action is sometimes very slow,
eioeciiilly on living animals, these having been found
undissolved, and sometimes even still alive at the end
of several days.

Notwithstanding the voracity of some reptiles, it is
astonishing how long almost all these tribes can sup-
port the want of food. Turtles and tortoises, even when
not in a torpid state, have lived for 10, or even 18
months, without taking any kind of food. Newts have
lived for two months, a chameleon for eight, salaman-
ders for an equal period, protei for two years, and toads
for a much longer time under the most perfect absti-
nence. It is most extraordinary, and the circumstance
forms a strange anomaly in animal physiology, that al-
though these reptiles gradually lose their vitality from
the want of food, they do not lose weight in proportion,
and in some instances suffer no sensible diminution or
flaccidity of muscle.

CHAP. IV.
Of Circulation and Absorption in Reptiles.

Thehe are several peculiarities in the circulation of
reptiles, and the organs vary considerably in the dif-
ferent orders. In some they are similar to those of
the higher classes of animals, except that the principal
cavities of the heart communicate more or less freely
with each other ; in others, the circulating system is
entirely different from that of Mammalia, and much
more simple.

In the Chelonian tribes, the heart is very broad in
proportion to its length, but differs in figure in the
two genera, being nearly hemispherical in the proper
Cheloniat, and of an oblong squareform in the Testudines.
In both it has two auricles, and a ventricle divided in-
to compartments. It is situated below the lungs, and
between the lobes of the liver. The auricles are very
large, forming each about one-third of the whole heart,
and spread wide at the base of the ventricle. Their
sides are thin, and their cavities do not communicate.
The ventricle is strong and fleshy, and its cavity,
which is naturally small, is still more diminished by nu-
merous fleshy bundles that proceed from its sides, and
are separated from each other in sack a manner as to
leave spaces between them. The auricles communicate
jwith the ventricle by large apertures, guarded by mem-
branous valves ; and on eacli side of the ventricle are
orifices, also furnished with valves, that lead to the .
great arterial trunks. The pericardium is large, and .
closely attached to the contiguous memi^ffane, as to the
diaphragm in quadrupeds. li

In tlie Saurians, the heart is also provided with two Saurians.

Chcloniansk

HERPETOLOGY.

II

iiiatmf aaida ; and in one tribe, the crooodilet, u eren more

mt rfcjw* nmplioited than that of the firrt order. It h in the

W» •* cracodile*, indeed, th«t iu ttructure h«» been mort ec-

**'^ cnraldy examiocd, and to thia tribe we ahall here coo<

The heart of the mM»dikbatiiatcd|Mfth' between
the lanK*. and partljr between the lobea oc the lirer.
Itt anidc* are pfoportianally leaa thn in tha CteioMMM,
bol their lidce ara thicker, and •trcngthened bjr faify
|nm#«^ iMmaim la variooa direcCiaiM. The Tcntrt-
(|»iaaran«f*Jfttn,aBdhBaTei7thldcndea. luca.
Tky ia JrWaJ into daw eoBparlaMnta, oomoianicac.
fa( with «Mh other fajraaoMnwarificM. ODeoTthaae
ia Mow, and towwria tha right, and tiaaiiwniwNi
with the right affcie by a lanw opaafay eatiartailby
two ralTca. tiMt diraci the blaod thrMgh ita appar
B«t. Onthalrf»eideaf thiaeawty ia Ja piiiigatp
a l«M artarr on the kft. that diatfilmtaa blood to tlM
■MfdarUnd pntaoT tha hady; andhahiad thia aa
ariiea laa^ to tha mtMm ttOm thraa eoaapartawiNa,
Aaatad at the adddb af tha baae of the heart; and ftaa
thia ariaea tha i iiaiann trunk of the pabaoaary ar«
teriea.

Hmc* tha Uoad that la aoarad by tha rMt aarida

tnio the mwpaitMieat on that rfda, fcwa chWIy hi two

«lireetiam> in. Into what nay be called tha ngkl rjr**

r eotapartaient of the rratrida, which throw* it

thetc4laacra/aar<a/ «dhp, IntathaaaAaeaareaaa*

ioto the Ml aocraf aarta / t^, Inia ttta p
■■rtMflitff vimtI iMpMi It into tli0
fcagh aaaae of it prebaMy ooaea iaio the lili ayal»>
^uaaiwlaiint. Tha lah aarida iMeiMi the Maad
Aaaatha palaawiry aaiaa, aad poara H fata thalaft
t; and from thia latter it iathrmmfaMa tha
' fUrj, the caraiUab and aaiUafy
Tlka BMraawM ot«far hat* a '

- of a aiMlr aarida. aad a
.eTacBakal

■I bv Ma hnachae tWHialti tta blaad ta
aD natta of tha ba^.

Wamaauiheiaaataalaf aaaaaarfaatkaaf thenmn-
her id caawa aT the pi hiilpd Maed aiaaek in the rap,
tila trihaa ; bat amat laAr the wadii to Cariar'a ^faa-
itr CWiparfri Le^on uv. Art. t, vd. it. vhara tfaay

Thar* ia 'aal thai waO marltad

tnff flrttflSl MM TMOTM MOOO IB

ha ■laiaiafta. eaaara. aad bir«k ; ^at la

dMra ia a aianifl fiAnaaa. aa CaUad h«

hi tartoiw. It i* Mid that n

laag hare the Mood of a paler eaienr dHB tha aaaw ipa>

etaa ivgalarlT %d.
Tha ahMlata qnaatity vf blaod in tha drailatiBf

I av taptueay ia propaitiaBally aaadi aaallar
■aMna aad biina : hmoathavaanaclta are wl

now prepared to consider two of these circumstances — Aiutomy
the remarkable faculty of rcprotiuction of parts that ^1?^^
have been mutilated or deatroyed, and the great ten*. ^Siih*.
city of life at which we have already hinted. ■_ -.-■

It is chiefly in the lizard tribe and salamander, that Riprodue-
eipertmentt and observations on the reproduction of tion of
parts have been made ; but it is reasonable, from ana- ?«**•
logy, to infer, that similar phenomena may take place
in other tribe*. The lisards arc peculiarly liable, from
their tinallness and the numerous enemies to which thev
are exposed, to partial injury or destruction of their
amubar*. This u particularly the case with respect to
tha taO, which is long and slender, and in many specie*
ao brittle aa to break dwrt on being handled. In these
caae* it haa been repeatedly obaenred, that the part
laat haa bam in no long time reprodaced, generally si.
aiOar to the original, but Kmetime* a double tail has

The rrprgduction of lost parts in reptiles, has been
aada tha aab^ect of niuneroas and satisfactory expcri.
BMBta, eapaoally by Spallansani, Bonnet, and Blunien>
bach. From these it appears, that when part of either
estrcroity, or of the tail, is cut off, from two S|)ecics of
liaard, the tmetrtm agilu, and lacuUru or water newt,
the woond ia MIowed, for two or three minutes, by an
effnaion of blood, after which the stump gradually lieati^
and in tha coarse of a few days the rudiments of a
aav Haih or tail Ixgin to make their appearance ; that
tbaae rudiuiama are gradually drrelopcd, till in a few
r aoaaataacB a little more than a year, there la
a perftet member, similar in sixe and proper*
to that which had been cut off, only retaining for
time a delicacy of structure atid tran»|Nirency of
maea aot fbond in the on'ipnal orfpn. It is fur.
proead. that thase rrgvnerated parts may be again
raooaladly maored and reprodaced. The most sur-
uiidiig of there aapariawotav howerer, are those of
Boanat and Bluaaabach en the reproduction of tha
wfaela eye in the water newt. These have tausht ua,
that whwi the eye of that animal is dissected from
the orbit, so as to leave about a fifth of the membranes
in contact with the optic nerve, the vacant orbit is first
cloaed by the eyelids, and gradually the vacuity is filled
ap wkb a growth of new parts, which in about a year
ika parftct slrvcture of an eye, with its inveat*
humours, transparent cop«

contained
and rolourad irisi
Wa have already raaiarkad tha great power of ab> i-cnidty *f
■aaed by teptflaa, and have now to notice uft.
aafcraurable chvanwtancea under which

thay eoatlaaa to lire, and perform most of their tunc*

' laiMa of a paler colour than in
•Tka drealatCa ai thaaa i

thoagh not so cam>
aa in tha hhhar daaaea afihaals, ia yet a pef^
; on^ a* hi the Wghar daaaea, thoagh
aat hi the aaow dMoa. tha blood tdua a double eooraa.
aaaw af jtamhig thriiaah the \mng» befara it be diatri-
baladtatfiaraatafthaaady. We aholl ace, fa the •
eaadiac Chapter, that ahboNgh the laaga of TvptOaa
largorm ptapuithia than thoae rf waaiaiafa and bit
tli^ ara leas vaacalar, and theraAira eaalaia
qaanttty of blood. It is this iaperfcuhai of what haa
baoa eoOad tha haa^ dnealotion, and the sli^^ht dilfiT-
hf m^itimk and pafciaaic blood, that lay
f^ aaawof thaaaaatrraiariuihiacimnB-
ia dta phyaidagy of tbaae aahaala. We are

IbM*.

Moat reptile* poescas the faculty of resisting estremea
of heat ann cold, and the rfliect of chemical agents, bet>
ter than other animals. 7*hough notrady nuw believee
the ridiculous stories of salamanders living in the fire,
it ia still a curious fact, that lisards and alligators live
with aaae, and apparent satisfaction, in the water* of hot
sariag*, heated to a liegree very considerably hit;her
than the hotteat temperature of the torrid sone. Fruga
and nawta ara often exposed to a degree of cold far be-
low the freeting point, while in a state of torpidity, and
they have evoa baan known to remain imbedded in a
block of ice for WMUiy houn, without having their vi>
tality extinguished. Some of these animals, that have
been put alive into aphrit of wine, for the purpose of
preserving them as speciaiew*. hare remaineil alive for
several hoiara; and other instances are recorded of their
ousting for a considerable time in the exhausted re«

12

HER FETOLOGY.

Abfoffbest

ceiver of an air-pump. Progs and water-lizards have
live<l,and moved with a^lity, many hours after having
been deprived of their hearts ; and Redi, by a curious
but cruel experiment, proved that a land- tortoise, after
having the cavity ot the skull laid open, and the brain
disse<£ed out, walked away with apparent unconcern ;
«ud, except tliat its eyes closed, ancl never afterwards
opened, it appeared for several months to enjoy life,
and exercise its functions nearly as before the loss of
the brain. Frogs, which were subjected to a similar
experiment by Spallanzani, livetl for five days. Nay,
a turtle has been known to live and move its limbs for
thirteen days aft^r its head had been cut off.

Not only is tl)e body in general of reptiles thus te-
nacious of life, but the parts and organs that have been
cut off shew signs of vitality and irritability, for hours
and even days together. The tails of water newts
have exhibited very lively motions for more than ten
hours ; the heart of a frog has continued to palpitate,
when irritated, for several hours aft«r being taken from
the body : the he.id of a turtle has not only opened and
closed its jaws, but has rlused upon a stick with con-
•iderable force, two days after having been ampu-
Uted.

The absorbenl system of reptiles has been very little
examined, and the investigation has scarcely extended
bi'yoiul tlie Chelouian order. We find that the thoracic
duct of turtles is double, and that the mesentery in
these animals abounds with lacteals. Numerous lym-
phatics are seen running in a longitudinal direction,
Doth on the superficial and central coats of the intes-
tines ; but it is not certain that these animals possess
lymphatic glands.

If we may judge from the little waste that takes
place in the body of reptiles during a long abstinence,
and wliile in the torpid state, it would seem that their
absorbent system possesses less activity than that of
giost other animals.

CHAP. V.

Of Respiration and t^oice in Reptiles.

The lungs of reptiles are proportionally much larger
than those of quadrupeds and birds, and they are also of
a much looser texture ; their structure is most compli-
cated in the Chelonian order, in which they are of a
uniform texture, but the air vesicles are very large. In
tJie Saurian order, the lungs form two large vesicular
bags, one on each side tlie heart, and have their inter-
nal substance divided by membranous plates into nu-
merous polyponal cells, which are again subdivided in-
to smaller. All the Balracian order have lungs, which
re.-^erable those of most of the Saurians in largeness and
•impUcity ; but in the tadpole state, they have also gills,
which disappear in the perfect animal, except in two
tribes, in which they are permanent.
Iftu^ I" "H. the lungs float loose with the other viscera in

the same cavity, and appear to have no innate contrac-
tile power.

The windpipe, except in one or two instances, di-
vides into branches or bronchi, before it reaches the
longs ; but this division takes place nearer the head
in some tribes than in others. In the Chelonians, it
commences very early, while in the crocodile the tra-
chea continues undivided for a considerable extent. In
general, however, the bronchi are very short, and in
■WMt iiutuces they terminate abrupUy ia the lungs.

The extent of the lungs is greatest in the Chelonians, Anatomy
in whom they reach along the whole length of the anij Phy^jo-
back. The lungs of reptiles are supplied with blood ^^^_>y"^
by the pulmonary arteries, there being m general no ^--y-J'
bronchial vessels.

The gills or branchiae of tadpoles, and of the pro- Branchie.
teus and siren, resemble the gills of fishes in their ge-
neral structure, but are not, like them, inclosed within
a particular covering, but hang loose and floating on
each side of the neck. They form three or four rows
of small tufts or fringes, supported by small cartilagi-
nous arches ; and these arches are articulated on one
side behind the cranium, while on the other they are
united to a bone re-.embling the os hyoides. They have
between the rows intervals, by which the water in
which the animal floats is freely admitted to the
mouth. The branchiae of the siren consists of three
tufts.

The spongy texture and little vascularity of the lungs Respjraaoiu
in reptiles, enable them to take in a greater quan-
tity of air than other animals at a single inspiration,
and this capacity appears to be increased by the expan-
sive power of the air cells. It is remarkable, that rep-
tiles not only receive air into the lungs in the ordinary
way of inspiration, but swallow it by the mouth, in
which action they are assisted by the muscles of tlie
throat. In fact, it is only by deglutition that the Che-
lonians inspire, and in expiration the animals of this
order employ chiefly two pairs of muscles, situated in
two layers near the tail, between the shield and breast-
plate. In the Saurians, the mechanism of respiration is
executed chiefly by the abdominal muscles, and by those
which move the ribs.

From the large quantity of air which reptiles can
inspire at once, there is the less occasion for frequent
respiration ; and, accordingly, in these animals, the
breathing is remarkably slow. It is least slow in the
Chelonian tribes, and it appears to be slowest when the
animals are asleep. What is most remarkable, how-
ever, in the respiration of reptiles, is the power they
possess of suspending respiration. Tortoises have been
known to live more than a month with their jaws close-
ly tied, and their nostrils stopped with wax ; and there
seems little reason to doubt the remarkable instances
that are on record, of toads being found alive in the
trunks of trees and blocks of solid stone, where the
function of respiration must have been suspended for
years together. It also appears that reptiles can live
for a longer time uninjured in deoxygenated or impure
air than other animals ; a circumstance that is explain-
ed on similar principles. This continued vitality in vi-
tiated air, has its limits however ; for it is found, that
when these animals are confined in atmospheric air,
they cease to exist when the oxygenous portion is ex-
pended.

The changes produced on atmospheric air by the res-
piration of reptiles, are similar to those produced by
tlie breathing of other animals, viz. the consumption
of oxygen and formation of carbonic acid. On this
subject we may refer our readers to Mr Ellis's Inquiry
into the chaugrx produced on Atmospheric Air, published
in 1807, and Further Inquiry in 1811, in which the
experiments and observations made by the ingenious
author, and collected by him from former writers, are
fully and satisfactorily detailed.

Intimately connected with the function of respira- vitrf Iis^t.
tion, is the vital heat of animals. We have already
seen that this in reptiles is very low. It appears, how-

S

HERPETOLOGY.

13

AatUmy ev«r, that, uiMl«r the otdinary toopenture of the at-
■»! Pk7*i»- nuMphwe, the heat of tbe*c animal* it generally • few
J^j^ degiVM above that of the surrounding mediuu; anJ
'l!*^' — woua Nia eontinuea, tl>ey have the power ot* prcterviqg
~ ' ~ a aBoderate tcmpcrataie, and of ntutiag, to a oer-
iMn Atgree, eooadanbly iofensr indeed to roan and
the extrcmaa of eitlier heat or cold. See

Ahnoat ad teptilea otter toundt hmto or leas loud ;
the aalamander and the gicen liaard bcinK almoat the
only known exoaptioaa; and it is even nK certain
wbeUier the fimncr ■beuid be entirely excluded. Tur>
dos aad iMloiaaa hsaa or sigh ; crocodilas l«w or ruar,
la in so loud a tono aa to reaeoihle dictant
while the jrouag of thaacaaiaafe aaa aaid to
I a noise like a cat, (but wholiMr mmmmg ot jmr-
rmg wc urn not told), and to utter piradnj criea ir at-
taocd, when firat extruded fram the tf(g. Iguaoaa
Make a sort of whittling sound as thejr ran akm^ Ike
treca, and the croaking of fnigaand loads ia suffiocat*
Ijr know*.

The ergana of voioe in thcae aniaaala are very MBple,
faf a Mqgle faryMT, vilhoHt eMrfirf<i>. but in-
Bttwa ohorda of iJm gtaUu, nsovad bjr

m aha» wanihranrwis baga

I wiUi the aialfii, or paachea ia the cheeks,

whictb wkM JBJatiij acnre to ingti er awdify the

CHAP. VI.

qrSmnHommi

imtUfHkM.

Orpa^

Uvtr.

TiiB moat iwpartant of the saaidi« argam, which
we an to Dodce ia teytiles, are the liver, iiinnaas,
aflaan, and ummrj arpmm.

The liver of thaw amnala ia always krytw and in
tan pas, as ia the ■lasnaader, ita nniportiwal
de is very ceaasdevaU*. la the rkitwisna it
iato two roaadcd irteanlv Uhf, the one
the right hvpeeheadmna, Md the other
[ to the sloiBaGh at ila sean «w«aiareb Ilk
divhied into two lehea ia the craoodile and the
hat in the elhar Saariasw, it tanm only one
: ia aiae and Agare iu the several tribce.
In an the Batraciana occpt Ae MUnMlider, the liver
iacaaanaed ef two lohea.

All raplilaa have a gall bhddar. which is more i».
tinalely Mnaealed with the liver, but ia nrepertionally
lalW than ia ^aadrwpctk and birdsi In the Chela,
■iwa. It iaalBMat wfaolhr eaaoaalcd in Uie riitlu lobe of
tito liver, aid ia fuaad m a mntlar ■tuation ia crao».
aim. There aw generally two daato Itortinf to the
Niaaa ; oaeftaas the liver, the hepatic daat, aad the
r. Iha cyaiie^ Imbi the «all-bladdar» aad theaa^ ia

separate froni each other.
Thaaaailiaaaad atae of the eaaaeas are eery va-
la aiaataf thfrCbehaiians tt is triangiiUr. andge>
la the ueaadile it ii dtvuicd into lohea.
la seaaa of the Bstaiciaai, aa the fk«g. it ia lodged ia
Ihe erchef the snanrii towards the sterael part of the
hady ; ia nthwa, aa tikr aalaiaander, it ia aitaaled in the
§m carve of the hWeatawa. The paacraatic dnot is
hat hi aooe iaalaaeak aa ia the N»>

jIlMk The^deea aiiata in all refMilca; bntilaal

ftea^ and ritoatiun in thaae snimel^ haa baaa vnr no-
latharhJaaaiii, itiaahqwd

like the kidney ; in the Saurians, it is elongated ; in Anatomy
mo«t of the Batracians, as frogs and toads, it is sniall '^ Pbyao.
and spherical, and in the former tribe is situated in tlie J."*^^?^
■aaaentery ; while in salamanders it is of au oblong -_** ^-
form.

AU reptiles appear to have kidneys ; but the struc- Kidnejn.
ture of these organs is extremely simple and iwiforni,
as they have no distinction of cortical and medullary
subatsince, and no part* corresponding to tiic infimiU-'
Mm and pelvis in mammalia. In figure and situation,
however, they vary in the several orders. In the Che-
lonians they are short and thick, and lie far back in
the cavity of the abdomen. In the Saurians they are
of an oval form, more or less flattened and elongated,
aad in general they be far back under the eacrum or
near the taiL It is uncertain whether their form varies
with agt m att thaae awBMb ; but it appears that in
ywany cracadilea tkagr are eatire, while in full grown
ladividoals of the ssoae tribes they are divided into se-
veral lobes. In the Batraciana, they are situatrd pretty
6r Sarwmnl and very near each other, and resemble
those of the Saurians in form.

All the rentile tribes have not a urinary bladder. It L'rinary
is found in tne Chakmians, in whom it is very large, bUUder.
and is mora or leas divided into two portions. Of
lha iSaariana, oidy the tupinambis, iguanas, stellioe,
clHaMlaana, aad dragons, have an urinary bladder.
It is foond in the Batsaeiana, ia some of whom it con-
sists of two aMaafaraiMaa b^a, while in otliers it is
siaglaL

El ia|itilBB tlMfe ia a cotnmon receptacle or passage cloaca.
for the urine aad /tcu, called eioaca ; and in those
tribea that hava ae eriaary bladder, the ureters, or
ptpca froat the kidneya, open inuaediataly into this re-

of a peculiar nature take place in pccujur k.
Tbaa, ia the crocodile, there is a gland si- octioiu.
aa each ade of the lower jaw, just beneath the
ikia, having a doet opening externally, and secreting
a substaaoe that anelU like musk ; while gUiKls of a
simtlar natare are found in the cayman, near the anus.
In several of thaae anjaiala, aaia toada aiid aalanwndera,
aa acrid Said ezndaa thmach nnmeroMa pore* of the
alna wbaa they are irritateJ. This fluid is not, bow-
aver, poiaoaoaa, as has been supposed ; but, anMa^
the Sauiiaia^ the Reckoa secrete Avm between their
toes a matter whioi is really of a venomous nature.
See Cacao in the anbaaqawit Pivt

CHAP. VIL

Of Inttgumation in ReptiUi.

A coNCiDCRABLB variety is found among the rep-
tiles with respect to their integuments ; and as these
varieties constitute many of the generic and specific
characters, it is necessary to examine them with some
aiinatctiesa.

In all these animals there is the usual distinction of Cutklst
cuticle, true skin, and nte aacanaw. The otructure of
the skin and rrte aaaesaw dMera but little from that
of other animala, except in the ftog and toad, where
there ia this peeoiaity, that the Miin adherea to the
parte beaeath only at a firw points, ae that it forms a
aort of loaae bag about the animal, auaoeptible of occa>
aional inflatian. 1 he cuticle ii extremely variona in the
dtCaant andan and tribea. In the Chalnniana, though >
only the bead, tail, and extxemitiear -appw to becoo-

u

HERPETOLOGY.

MoKlnaf
the ikiii.

ToftiMe

AmMb; twwI with skin, yet in Veality the whole body within
^gd njtio. th^ ghell is envelopwl with a thin transparent cuticle,
capable of being thtache<l in plates. In most of these
animals, the cuticle, when exposed, is covered with
scales of a homy texture, and differing very much in
numl>er, situation and figure. A thin membrane re-
«erobling cuticle, also covers the shell of the Chelonians;
and in several species, the upper shell, or shield, is co-
vered with a dense and strong membrane resembling
leather or parchment. Among the Saurians there is
■first a cuticle enveloping the true skin, then scales,
plates, or tubercles, and over these again another cu-
ticle, as in the Chelonians. In the croco<liles and
Draccena, there are strong and broad plates differently
shaped and arranged, as we shall see hereafter ; in the
tupinambes, the scales are disposed in circular rows
or transverse bands ; in the basilisks, they are diffused
over the whole b<xly, while in the lizards again, they
•re arrangwl in transverse bands. The Batracians have
the epidermis smooth, and in general slimy.

The .Saurians have generally very strong and nume-
rous subcutaneous muscles, especially in the tail ; and
in most cases, there is an intimate connection or adhe-
sion between these muscles and the skin.

We have already seen that the Chelonians are co-
vered, both on the upper and lower parts of their body,
with a strong and hard shell, of which the upper part
may be termed the shield, and the lower the breast-
plate. Each of these is divided into a considerable
number of separate plates, united together by their
«dges, sometimes in a smooth and even manner, at
others overlapping each other. A row of these plates
lies along the middle of the back over the vertebrae,
and these are surrounded on each side by several others,
which, together with the vertebral plates, constitute
what is called tlie disc. The other plates of the shield,
lying between the disc and the breastplate, are called
marginal, and are generally from twenty-one to twenty-
five in number. They are of a more irregular figure than
those of the disc, and generally of an oblong form. The
shield is more or less convex. The shield and breast-
plate are united only at their sides, leaving a space at
the fore and back parts for the head, tail, and extremi-
ties. This shelly covering, in general, resembles the
hoofs of quadrupeds in its texture, though in some in-
stances, as in what is called tortoise-shell, it is purer
and more transparent than the finest horn.

The Saurians and Batracians occasionally change the
eutide, throwing off the old, and acquiring a new one.
This is particularly the case while they are young, and
after leaving their winter quarters. In these animals,
the change is not made at once, as in serpents, (see
OpiiioLonv,) but the cuticle is detached in scales or
plates, till the whole is thrown off.

CHAP. VIIL

Of Generation in Reptiles.

TntRE is no part of the economy of reptiles more
curious, none more interesting to the naturalist, than
that function by which these animals generate their
like. The differences, with respect both to organs and
phenonieiia. which are found in this class, admirably
illustrate the observation oJ'a cplebrated naturali-t, that
• iiystematic arrangement of animals, as well an plants
might I)e composed merely from a comparison of their
'generative organs.

CtuBgeef

A difference of sexes prevails in all reptiles, and the Anatomjr
distinction of male and female organs is in most instan- ^"^ Phyao-
ces very manifest. There is one part of the structure, g"?,^;,*^,
however, found in both sexes. The cloaca, which has '^^^J^w
been already noticed as forming the common outlet Sexe».
for the urine and faeces, also forms, as in birds, the
common receptacle of tlie external organs, and the out-
let for the ova.

All male reptiles have /fs/«, but these organs differ j,^jj ^^^
in form and situation. In the Chelonians, they lie with- guna,
in the abdominal cavity, (as is the case in all these ani-
mals,) contiguous to the kidneys, and united to their
inferior or sacral surface. In the Saurians, they lie in
front, or on the sternal side of the kidneys, on each side
of the vertebral column ; and in the Batracians they are
situated immediately below the anterior surface of those
organs. In the first order, the testes are composed of
large vascular bundles, disposed in various directions ;
and the epididymis is formed in the usual way, by the
convolutions of the vessels, particularly of the seminal
duct, or vas deferens. It is not certain whether these
animals have seminal vesicles. The testes of the croco-
dile are long and narrow, and communicate with two
organs that are supposed by some anatomists to be se-
minal vesicles, and if so, foi-m the only instance of
these organs among the reptile tribes. In salamander.*,
each of the testes is divided into two spherical bodies,
placed one before the other : and their texture consists,
as in all the Batracians, of an agglomeration of small
whitish granular bodies, interspersed with blood-ves-
sels.

The penis is single in all the Chelonians, and in most
of the Saurians. The Batracians have no organ of this
kind ; but, in some of that order, its place appears to
be supplied by a small papilla within the cloaca. This
organ is most remarkable in the Chelonians, in some of
whom it is of very considerable length. It is cylindri-
cal, terminates in a point, and has a deep furrow along
the whole extent o( its upper surface. It is furnished
with two retractor muscles, by which it is withdrawn
within the cloaca, where it usually lies concealed, and
from which it is thrust out in preparing for copulation.
In the Saurians, this organ is short, cylindrical, and
beset with numerous spiny processes, resembling the
bristles of the hedgehog. In the usual state, it is drawn
up under the skin of the tail, and, when erected, ap-
pears externally at the slit of the cloaca.

We must here notice a peculiarity of structure in the
males of those reptiles which do not immediately copu-
late with the female. There are found in these males,
during the copulating season, hard brown or blackish
papillce or tubercles, attached to the thumb and palm
of the fore feet, which assist in grasping the female.
These tubercles are found chiefly in the frog and toad.
Salamanders have, during the same season, a crest with
divided edge upon the back and tail, which afterwards
disappears.

The female reptiles have ovaries, and most of them Pemale or)
a vterus, or an expansion of the oviducts, which answers gans.
a similar purpose. The ovaries of the Chelonians re-
semble those of birds, (see Ornithologv. ) They are
two in number, and have each a duct opening into a
uterus. The uteri are thick and fleshy, and have open-
ings by which they communicate with the cloaca. The
ovaries of the Saurians and Batracians are much alike ;
but the former contain fewer eggs, and have larger and
shorter oviilucts. Those of frogs lie below the liver.

A curious structure prevails in the female of the Su-
rinam toad, or Biifo dvrsiger. The skin of the back in

HERPETOLOGY.

15

Amiwy titia animal is hollowed out into a great number of cells,

uti Phy»o- ij, which the ova, after being extruded by the female,

J^jJ,^ and fecundated by the male, are placed by tlie latter ;

-^\"- and here they remain enveloped in the skm, whidi con-

' " tract* round them till they are batched, and ready tor

enjoying a leparate existence.

Only the Chelonians and Saurians enter into actual co-
pulation, and this act is different in tlie two order*. It
u not certainly known in what manner the male and
feaiale turtle* and tortoiaca perform this act. It is sup-
poaed, and even aaaeited by acme, that they unite
LiBaat plate to breastplate, while others affirm, that the
union take* place in the manner of quadrupeds. We
are not disposed to enter into the minutis of these rep-
tilian amours, as we do not think them calculated for
a work addrnscd to general readers. Those who wish
to gratify their curiotitv on this part of comparative
phyaiolonTf niay consult the dissertations of Spallan-
aani, aira the works of Boifsel, Swammerdam, and
Dawfia, abaady laantioned in oar hiHorical notioca.

The seaaon of eopuktiaa eemnMnoaa early in spring,
or aa soon aa the animals arc roused from their winter
state at torpor, and seems to return only once a year :
it continue* for a longer or shorter time, in different
orders and tribes, genaadlj kngeat among the frogs
and toada.

All reptiles are properly oviparous, thousfa in oiw
instance, the aalananoer, the ova an hatffirid in the
oviduct. In moat of the tribes, the agga, ttato^ nu-
merous, are laid distinct from each odter : and, m that
•aae, they are enveloped dtlMT br a calcareous shell,
or a mcaabrane reacaibliBg pamimant Froga and
toads, however, ky fgn tnat ara oumwrtail lagathar
in a kind of bunch, aM^are of a gelatiaana oowiiliiwt,
each en containing in its centre a dark apol, wMdl ia
tba ramaocnt of the fbture yoong, ( see Fig. 1 5.) Theaa
oonoectad ca» ars extruded gndually 1^ the female,
and ead) ia MOUMfatod by the male aa it escapee rrooa
tbedoaca. What may be oonaidarcd aa perfect eggs,
which are thoae of the Chaloniaws and Sauriani^ are
vary Mmiiar to thoae of birda, exoant that tha tnnapa-
rant fluid, which torras ponds to taa atfaairN in tha
lattar, doaa not eo^nhua by heat. The eggs of the
CMoniana, and, according to soma aathora, thoae of
tha crooodile, aiord good and wholesome nouiishMsiH
to man.

We have said, that the yoong of the Batraeians un-
dergo a mtlammmko$ii ; and this is not the least inter-
asting part in taa nhy*i<^ary of generation in theaa
airi— Is M. BoeM, n hia Hiitonm Ranmrwm Sottra.
limm, haa givaa a ninaM aeooaat, ilfaiatntad by (U
af &a |M«gf«aa«f tha coamao frag, from the

B««-

CCXCV.

KVt

■'1m«»«'

vhan the tgg ia fbstlknndladto dia campletion
parftaanimaL Wa ahaU haiv preaiM «w read.
itn an abstract of thia aceoont.

of tha
era wit

Two days after tha ovum ia excluded, the central
apot is aomawbat enlarced, but atitt spharical, and is
aoveloped by an immediate alhwrniniwia eoivaring, very
distinct from the exterior mucilage. In four days, tM
central germ has sastimsd tha sfaana of a kidney bean,
and its Sboainaaa cmwmm ia auaagad. In five davs,
the kidney-ahapad ambryonaa changed it* form to that
of a half crsaeent, tbouch still acaroriy increased in
sise ; but the following (by it haa become longer, thick-
er, and straighter, and the distinction between the
outer and inner mucilage is no longer visible. The
head, eye*, and mouth are also now obacnrely viaible,
snd there is some a|^>earance of a taiL By the seventh
dajr, the aiaa of the tadpole is increased, and the dis*

tinction of head and tail more evident ; and there are Anatomy
aim visible the rudiments of the fore feet and of the *°'^ Phyagr
gilU. It haa now quitted the egg. At the end of nine p^^"^
days, the head and body are enlarged, and the tail con- -_'*~**|^
sidenbly lengthened. Soon alter this, the branchice " "
are so much increased as to be distinctly observed ; but,
about the twentieth day, these appendages are with-
drawn below the skin, as no longer necessary ; and
about four days after, the fore legs, which till now had
been almost entirely concealed below the skin, appear
extemallv. The Ixxly of the tadpole is still transpa-
rent, and its long intestines are seen extending from Pi-atk
head to tail, (see Fig. 16.) In a few days after this, ^9^'-T^-
the tail gradtudly disappears ; the hind legs are deve- '*'
luped ; and, in about two months from the first exclu-
sion of the ovum, the animal becomes a perfect frog.

The metamorphosis of all the Batraeians does not pro-
ceed exactly in the manner above described. In par-
ticular, the tadpole of the liana paradoxa undergoes
such remarkable diaiiges, as to have been mistaken fur
aa animal ot'a very ditfrrent class. The«e will be no-
ticed in a subsequent part of this article. The young.
of salamanders also differ from the tadpoles of frogs,
and have been denominated tame. They remain four
months in the tadpole state.

CHAP. IX.
Oa Hyhernalion in ReplUet.

HAvnra, in the preceding Chapters, describe<l the
organiaatioo of reptilea, and given a comprehensive
view of their organie ftmctions, we have only to con-
aider the phenomena that take place in these animals at
that aaaaon when they begin to loae aenae and motion,
and aink into a state of torpor.

If we except the insect tiibea, there are no animals Bflcett of
to whom heat appears mora neoeasary for enabling them ^^ ■"^
to exercise their functions with vigour and activity than •
reptiles. We shall find presently, that bv tar the great-
er number of the specaes are natives of the torrid zone,
and indeed tha fow which inhabit these colder regions
are cwpaiativdy liffcileaa and inactive. The hett of
the ann seems to increase not only their vivacity and
agility, but their sensibilitv. Cold produces the con-
trary aSecta ; and when this takes pUce in any consi-
deiMile degree, they become listless and inactive, and
would pn£ably pensh, if they did not seek for refuge
in some situation where they are in some measure sbel«
tered from the cold in its extreme degree. According-
ly, we find that, on the approach of winter, these ani-
raak betake theaaselvea to some retreat corresponding
to their natural situation. Turtles and freth water tor-
toisea iasbed themselves in the muddv or the sandy bot-
tams of lake* and rivers, while loiict tortoises make an
excavation in the earth, and there find a temporary
grave. Crocodiles, and those other Saurians which re-
semble them in their usual habitation, find retreats in
sand-hank* ; while others, especially the Batraeians, re-
tire to crevices of walls, cavities of stones, clefts of
trees, and cavema of mountains i while a few seek a
precarious cxmtinuanoa of warmth by creeping into
dunghills. In these retreeta, where tliey can no longer
find their accustomed prey, they gradually sink into a
state of insensibility, and appear m a profound sleep,
scarcely to-be distinguished from actual death.

As this torpidity approaches, their circulation liecomef PhcoooMBa
languid, their respiration ia extremely slow, their appe- "^ '■rb«a>>

16

AaMM* titefor foxl appears to cense, and their temperature
mi Mv*. aink« below iu natural standard. So complete is their
''«'•' WMitof awitation, that they may l>e cut, torn, and in
"«>*"**• jome CMC* broken to pieces, without expressing the
' Inrt dMTCC of pain, or showing any sigTis of motion.
In tlii* state they continue generally during the
whole winter : and, as the genial heat of the spring re-
turns, or in thoM climates where the changes of season
are not so remarkable, when the analogous revolution
of the seaaon takes place, the animal begins to shew
signt of returning life, gradually recovers sense and
motion, iu heart beats with a gradually increased velo-
citv, its respiration becomes more frequent and regular,
its 'temperature increases, it quits its retreat, resumes its
ordinary functions, searches after prey, and seeks a

mate. . ,. -i •

It is remarkable that this hybernation of reptiles is
not confined to those species wliich inhabit a cold or
temperate region, but seems to extend even to the hot-
ter climates of Barbary, Egypt, and South America.
It is also worthy of remark, that this continued state of
torpor, unlike the winter sleep of bears, marmots, and

HERPETOLOGY.

otlier hybernating quadrupeds, does not produce any An«tomy
very evident emaciation or loss of weight in the torpid *"^J''>^'j'*

Reptiles.

animal. Land tortoises have been repeatedly weighed
just before retiring to their winter quarters, and after
emerging from them, and were found in some cases
not to have lost above two ounces.

It is found that when some of these animals, as tor-
toises, in a state of domestication, are taken from their
winter retreat, and exposed to a more elevated tempera-
ture, they recover, in some degree, their sense and mo-
tion, though they scarcely ever take food during this pe-
riod. We have known a land tortoise kept in a room
where there was almost a constant fire, lie for several
weeks together in the box that formed its retreat, with-
out making any attempt to come out, and though when
taken from the box, it opened its eyes, moved its head,
;ind sometimes walked a little, it could not be prevailed
upon to eat till its usual period of hybernation was com-
pleted. The ))erson with whom it lived, with officious
kindness, would sometimes force a little broth or soup
into its mouth ; but the animal never showed any desire
to eat of its own accord. See Hybekna tion.

Part II. CLASSIFICATION AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPECIES.

Chclovi-
Ava.

ORDER I. CHELONIAN REPTILES.

We have seen that most of this order, comprehending
the animals called turtles and tortoises, are inclosed
witiiin a homy covering, consisting of ;wo parts, one
covering the back, and usually called the sliield ; the
other supplying the place of a sternum, and called the
breastplnle. Each of these is composed of numerous
plates ; tho»e of the shield being most numerous, and
divided into those of the disc, or middle part, and those
of the margin. The plates of the disc are generally
thirteen in number ; and those which are ranged along
the back from head to tail, are denominated vertebral
^ii^tM. The plates of the margin vary in the different
■peOM from 21 to 25. There are several teniis appli-
cable to these plates, which occur in the following cha-
racters, and therefore require explanation here. When
the plates rise in a ridge in the middle, they are said to
be carinated ; when they have depressions in the con-
trary direction, they are forromed ; when they are uni-
formly highest in the centre, they are convex or svb'
convex, according to tlie degree of elevation ; when
they lie upon each other like tiles or slates upon a roof,
they are imbricated ; when they are notched about the
edge like the teeth of a saw, they are serrated.

The shield and breastplate of these animals are more
or less firmly united together at the edges, leaving open-
ings for the head, legs, and tail Some species have
the power of withdrawing all these parts within the
shell, where they lie as if shut up in a box, safe from
the attacks of almost every animal but man.
' Thelegsof these animals are very short, but so strong,
that one of the larger turtles has been known to walk
with •ppamt case, while several men stood on its back.
In their motions they are slow and awkward, and, with
very few exceptions, they are inoffensive, and submit,
without resistance, to the most cruel treatment. They
pus the winter in a torpid state.

Gsifus I. Chblonia. turtles.
The feet flattened, *• as to resemble the broad part

of an oar ; the toes of unequal length, united together
so as to form a broad expanded surface, with flat nails
inserted into its margin.

The Cheloniw comprise the largest species of this or-
der; some having been found that weighed seven or
eight hundred pounds. They are inhabitants of the
ocean, and feed partly on fuci or sea- weeds, and partly
on the mollusca and other small sea-animals that har-
bour among these submarine plants. The eggs of all
the species, and the flesh of most of them, afford a deli-
cious repast even to the epicure.

Of this genus only six species are distinctly marked
by naturalists, though it is understood that Schoepff,
the Prussian naturalist, was acquainted with eight.
These six species may be thus distinguished.

Species 1. Chekmia mydas. Green turtle. Plates
of the shield neither imbricated nor carinated, in num-
ber thirty ; four feet, furmshed with two nails. See
Plate CCXCVI. Fig. 1.

La Tortue Franchc. Daudin, Hist, Nat. des Reptiles,
par Sonnini, i. p. 10. Lacepede Hist. Nat. des ^iiad.
Ovip. i. Art. 1. (Translation by Kerr.)

Testudo mydas, Linn. Syst. Nat. a Gmelin, p. 1037.
Schoepff, Hist. Nat. Tesludimim, p. 73. pi. xvii. fig. 2.

Green turtle, Shaw, General Zoology, iii. pi. xxii.

3. C. rtigosa. Wrinkled T. Plates marked with
three transverse black furrows ; body of the shield ches-
nut-coloured, with a yellow margin.

T, ridce, Daudin, i. p. 37.

3. C. carelta. Caret, or Hawksbill T. Shell ellip-
tical, subcarinated, serrated; dorsal plates 30, imbri-
cated.

T. caret, Daudin, i. p. 39- Lacepede, i. Art. 5.
1\ imbricata, Linn, a Gxnelin, p. 1036. Schoepff, p.
83. pL xviii.

Imbricuted turtle, Shaw, iii. 89. pi. 26. xxvi.

4. C. cepediana, Cepetlian T. Feet thin shaped,
furnished with one nail ; plates of tlie breastplate li.

T. cipedienne, Daudin, i. p. 49.

5. C. caouamia. Loggerliead T. Shell ovato-cor-
date, serrated; plates of the disc 15; vertebral plates
gibbous behind.

Mjdas.

Plate
CCXCVJ,
Fig. 1.

Rugosa.

Ciietfa.

CepediaHS.

Caouaanib

HERPETOLOGY.

17

in, L p. 54. Lampede, i. art. 3.
• GnKlin, 1038. Schoepff, p. 67.

CotUo^

Cfuca
Tunk.

LaggtHtmd Imtk, Shsw, i& tA. S3. 24, S5.
ft X. Corimitm. ConMCOiM T. Body not shelled.
bat covered witk a \m»htrj coat pbked longitudiiMdly ;
HN^ fin enipeo*

T. laik, Uaudtn, i. p. 6?. I^repcde, L art. 6.
T.Jin*, Linn. • Gnwlin, lOiti.
8^Mlt4 tmrtk, Femunt, PkO. Trm*. \xL 915.
~' ttmtmtt ilriltiA 2M*«r, «oL iv. p. 1.

Sluw, iii. p. 77. pL «!■
Of thaw mx ipacMS, we thall notiee th* lint, third,
ipatioilvly.

Eaculent, or green

cwarMf 1.
tuitfe.
Of all the Chclonian reptile*, thb it deserredljr held

jMmlnHHii. fhM the
I^Cm4 «Mck it tibrda t» tfaa

'and
itia

alwaneaf th» latum aftf>—tribaa,«Dd ia not laaata.
tawta^flf JlatMbHi aad ■■iiiiri, th— ftan ha Bti»
Hty a* an anicW of diet.

A fall grown tmtlr «Aat aaMOTCt an or teren feet
in length tnm the n«ae to tbetip of it* ahort tail, three
ev tamr fcol in breadth, ottd ncarlv aa nmch in thirk>
mw at tba ■JdMla cf tfaa body. It aooiatiaMawaigh*
•igkt baadbad paaada, Tha body ipvaM* of ai oral
fbna, and tba baad la af eoMUanbia aiat inpmMftian
ta Iha bady. Tba UQ b ab«t and thick. Tha fcct
an 1«M, and macfa bettar adaplad to tba aet&a of
awjnaMtlbMtbalof walkbMP. Tba bead, fcct. and
tail,aM '^^ '

with leala* Twa bwaal plati ia abattar
tban dw abiald, and baa twamy»thiat or twcnty-lbar
ptaMi dhpaaad hi foor rawa. The pttirailiag cofaar of
MaMMb'a riMll, wban in ita nMal aituatian. ia far^|hft

nrigaa
brawn, with apoto of a ytlhnr coloar ; and whan the
riMll baeoaaa dry, ifca brawn aManwa a darker baa.

Tbia laiBii ftanaala tba riau both of thaialanda
■M coMtneMO or ma nnia^uupaeai nj^iwio. ana w loana
bigf«M abaa^Ma balb in tba Bmi and Waat indiea.
It aanMlbnaa amaia Aa aaaatha of krga rhaia, and oc-
gaaa dialraca ftani tba thor* into the
> parti of tba eovntrr. It awima with
ka bead and part of ita Aell
I of Aa waMr; bat wban itfearathe
iHaaadt €m ptK^tt, aa aaiba ila jnvy amam tba radui
it divaatatba wnHn« aMam^ baiacn btaaaiua at ita
aawaaHnf Ihavaada. It ia a^ bawavcr, that it doaa
not <Uva vary laadBy, . ai tba apadfic gravity of iti
' bat of tba aah water. When

' a

I and

axetpt ifaat it ia nucfa

bady bat Nttla waaado that of tba aah water. Wb«
it fate tba waiar, fai aaaliaa an tba land ia rather
aannbla than a mtA, md laatuibka that of ■oak an

whifb tartleago on
■and. Thiv precc

II to
ia gene-

at one time, »he scratrhes the miiiI over them, and
learea them to be hatched by the heat of the tun. The
egx« of tnit species are rouiKl, about the size of a tennis
ball, and covered with a white skin resembling Ttardu
ment. It is said that tlut part of turtles eggs which is
analc^ous to the albnmen or white in the eggs of birds,
does not coagnlate by the heat of boiling water.

As the fenmle turtle lays hc-r e-tfp at thrrc or four
ttmea, with interrab of about a fortnight, the young
are o€ coarse hatched at different pcriiKls, the eggs of
each laying requiring about three weeks before the
young are ready for extrusion. The Lulc animals are
(^ the same shape with their parent, but have only a
soft eoTcring instead of a shell As soon as thev are
tiltaaail ftora their confinement, they make directly for
the water : and though this be sometime* at a con^uler-
ablo distance, they anape their course towards it in a
straight direction. But a small proportion of tliem, how-
ercr, in general, reach their natural habitation. Great
i of thetn are seised br various predacious ani-
, oapactally cormoranta and other large birds, which
r aDont tha shore from May to September, fur ibc
porpoaa of seiziiw snch a desirable prixe.

The individuab of thb specie* are often found col-
lacted into numerous groups, tbouah it doe* not appear
that they have much enjoyment of a social intercourse,
but are rather aUracted to the same place by the abuu-
daoca of their natural fiiod which it affurda. During
tba eoopUni sea^m, tite male and female seem wanuly
attarbed to each other, and are said to continue tlkeir
connubial embnoco for near a fortnight together.

To ■rbat age the green turtle is capable of living,

""' '>e aacertainetf;
u who suppose

no

■, antl the

1 growth.

We

_e for

,' of turtles for

s*-*! Ki tile East Indies;

raly bagan in ina maMb of April, and takes vp setaral
wana, aa dw agg* ara laid at intenrala c^ aboat Ibur-
taondays. Wban ptaporing to lay her egg*, the female
tartio «fi a bale abaat two feet deep, a little above
and into this cavity she drops abnut
ons at one tmie. While thus rmploj-ed,
aala aa eoaipkulji taken op with the buai.
aaaa ftr wMcb •*•» *>*• r,wnm «<bare, thirt a perion may
earily anaaach :id, and catch the egj;i as

thayaraWtMl .. ..,;.irf>ed brfBrv sh^ »-

lay, aba qaito the place, and seaks a more *r<
Aflar borhig depoailad aD iba tggi wiadi she u lu i«>
VOL. XL raKT I.

it to raaain unmolested,
bat it if oonjcctand by thosi-
tbaM*of an oniaut •■ -*■"-
nanmr of years re<j
that tbitspcciea mu>i >.>r mi
dkall asa barnfter that thia is
species of a much more (Hr --

Even in tSc time of V.
the table* of the graat was |ir.ic

and if we may cndit the account* of .Elian and Dio*
donio bicvlua, the harbaro i« of the Ka*t were

aocaMoBWd to employ thr i* the largest iiulivi.

daabaa cmoea. It u bci;cNcil ijiat it is only within
tbooa bandrad year* that turtle* have been imported
Into Bampe for the purpo*c* of food.

Variona method* are reaortcd to in diSerent conn-
fbr catching turtle*. A very common r ^l

them as they go on shore, or return. <. .e

of iaybtg their eus, when tlie}- are easily «r«
rc«ted; and, by the unilMtbrce of several prrtons, are
turned on their backs, a position from ^' y find

it extmnely difficult to escape. Several • il.> are

thus tumcu, and when a sufficient number iios been
thus partly secured, thev are dragged away by ropes,
and carrinl in l>oat«
ia Ibe methol i>rA< il
hama isUiw:
sailors, wl<
pic* durinv

(•

to their place oi destination. This
'('(1 >>y the inhabitant* of the lU-
' often employ cd with success by
iig at the islands between the tro-
.' voyage*. Turtles are alao taken

if ..4*11 Sol-lf. flHllfTk flT ITf^Ilt (IpX-

ill, in the

^ .... '- down the

' y, to as to
.11 assifitjiiit
tliiM si'ciire

hind part, and raise the fore piut i>l

,«.... ...1 (I...... I,, F^... to iljp surfnri-, «■..»..

<e over tht' hend, unci
Uh.- «^^ikuivu aiuiii.li. The most coaunon mode, lu>w*
c

Chelonian
Bepdlo.

18

HERPETOLOGY.

ever, of catching turtles out at sea, is by means of a kind
of spear, or harpoon, with a long wooden shaft, to which
the heail of the spear is but loosely attiched. This
kind of fishing, as it is termed, is generally carried on
by two men in a small light boat or canoe. One of
tho«e persons manages the boat, while the other stands
n uiv to dart the spear into the back of his destined
victim. It is nat long before a turtle is seen either
swimming at the surface, or, what is more usual, feed-
ing at the bottom, where the water is about a fathom
deep. Sometimes the animal discovers the approach of
his enemies, and endeavours to escape ; but the men
paddle after him, and generally contrive to tire him out
in atwut half an hour's chace. The spearman then
hurls his weapon, the head of which, from the peculiar
construction of the instrument, generally sticks fast in
the shell, while its attachment to the shaft is secured
by a long string. The animal thus wounded again,
makes off, unlvss he has been so much fatigued in the
chace, as to be incapable of further exertion. In either
case, he soon becomes an easy prey to his pursuers.

It is only for its flesh that this species is so much
esteemed, its shell being of no use. In many of the
West India islands, turtles are exposed in the open
market, and a turtle-steak is there as common as a
beef-steak in Britain. The flesh of the turtle is ex-
tremely nutritious, and is considered an excellent re-
storative in cases of debility and emaciation.

Hi»)ubill Sp. S. Chelonia caretta. The imbricated or hawksbill

*"«'«• turtle.

Tiiis species, though of considerable size, is much
less than the preceding, the largest individuals seldom
•weighing more than three or four hundred pounds. The
shield is of an oval and almost heart-shaped form, slight-
ly sinuated before, and narrowest behind. The disk is
covered with thirteen plates, that are two or three lines
thick, of a smooth surface, nearly transparent, lying
over each other like tiles upon a roof. The five verte-
bral plates are of unequal size and figure, though each
is ridged longitudinally in the middle. That nearest
the head is very large and quadrangular, with a semi-
circular margin anteriorly. The three next plates are
hexagonal, and have their greatest length across the
body. The fifth is pentagonal, with one angle directed
backwards, and a little prolonged towards the tail. The
eight lateral plates are very large, and of an irregular
pentagonal figure. There are twenty-five marginal
plates, which are so much imbricated as to give the
sides of the animal a serrated appearance. The colour
of all these plates is generally black, with irregular
transparent shades of red or yellow ; all of them toge-
ther sometimes weigh from four to eight pounds.

We have been thus particular in describing the plates
of this species, because they constitute its most valuable
product. They form what in Europe is denominated
fortoise-sheU, which, by the inhabitants of the West
Indies, is more properly called turtle-shell. The head
and neck of the caret turtle are considerably longer
than those of the green turtle; and the upper mandible
projects so much over the lower, as to give the snout a
distant resemblance to the bill of a bird of prey, whence
English sailors have given it the name of hawksbill.

This species is found in the Asiatic seas, and on the
Atlantic coasts of America ; but is said not to be met
with in the South Sea.

and its feet longer

Cheloniaai
Reptiles.

cure, as its shield is more convex,
than those of the first species; so that when tiirned on its
back, it more readily regains its natural position. The
female begins to lay her eggs in May, and continues
with intervals till .July. She is said not to deposit them
in fine sand, but in gravel mixed with shells. The
young of this species very nearly resemble those of the
former.

The eggs of the hawksbill turtle are esteemed very
delicious; but its flesh is unwholesome, and affects
those who eat of it with fever and dysentery. It is al-
most entirely for the plates of tortoise-shell that it is
made an object of search.

The use of tortoise-shell was known to the ancients,
but it is only in modern times that the manufacture of
it has been brought to perfection. In selecting the
plates, those are preferred which are thick, clear, and
transparent, and variegated with dark-brown, golden-
yellow, red, and white. In preparing them for use,
the plates are softened in warm water, and then re-
duced to the desired shape, by pressing them in warm
iron moulds. After they are cooled, they are taken
from the mould, smoothed and polished. For the pur-
poses of inlaying in cabinet work, the moistened plates
are pressed perfectly flat, and kept in that state till cool
and dry. It is usual to place below them metallic leaves
of such a colour as it is wished should appear through
the transparent part of the shell.

Sp. 5. Chelonia caounnna. Loggerhead, or Mediter- L(,„„ej}|p,j
ranean turtle. turtle.

This has been sometimes confounded with the last
species, under the name of caret, but Lacepede restrict-
ed this name to the hawksbill, in which he has been
followed by succeeding naturalists.

This is a very large species of turtle, and is said by
Lacepede even to exceed the green turtle in size. Its
head is much larger in proportion than that of either of
the former species. The mouth, and especially the
upper mandible, is also of considerable size. The neck
is thick, and covered with a loose wrinkled skin, thinly
beset with horny scales. The shield is of an oval form,
narrowest behind. It is of a yellow colour, with black
spots. The legs, especially the fore legs, are propor-
tionally longer than in many other species; and both the
fore and hind feet are furnished with two sharp claws.

The individuals of this species are most abundant in
the tropical seas, especially about the West India islands;
but they are also found in the Mediterranean, particu-
larly on the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia.

In its manners, this is one of the fiercest of the Chc-
lonian tribe ; it defends itself with great courage and
activity, both with its mouth and claws, and has been
known to snap a moderate sized walking-stick with a
single stroke of its jaws. It appears to be the most
predacious of all the turtles, not only feeding on shell-
fish of considerable size, the habitations of which it
easily breaks with its strong mandibles, but attacking
the young crocodiles, seizing them by the tail as they
retire backwards into the water. Thus these animals
instinctively perform an act of retributive justice. The
older crocodiles make a prey of the eggs and young of
those turtles which inhabit the shores to which they
resort, and the turtles in return seize on the young cro-
codiles while they are too weak to defend themselves,

_,, The loggerhead turtle wanders very far from land.

V t)Tfi *" ^ smaller than the green turtle, the It has been seen apparently sleeping on the surface of

hawksbill possesses considerable strength; and when at- the ocean, about midway between the Azores and Ba-

Ucked, defends Itself with much ferocity, giving very hama islands, at a distance of many hundred miles from

•evere and painful bites. It is also more difficult to se- land. The female lays her eggs in the sand.

HERPETOLOGY.

19

rbdoBlMi The flesh of this tpecies i* come and rank, and eaten

■«l>«a«»- only by the lowest d««e« of the people. lu body,

""""V""^ however, aflonb a oaasiderable quantity of oil, which is

Hwd for burains in lamps, and dressing leather. The

plates of its shell are too thin for most purposes, but

nave been ccnplojred in cabinet-work.

An individual of this species, which was cauf;ht on
the coast of Provcnoe in France, was kept by Rondelet.
It emitted a canfuaed Idnd of noise resembling sighing.
11. Daudin rcckoos as varietieaof this medes, the Na-
tieorme of Lacepede, the Box tortoise of Catesby, the
Thiddicadcd tortoise of Dampier, and the Tettudo ma-
eropiu of Walbamnf
toiiacMis Sji. 6. Chelomia coriaeta, ooriaceous turtle.
Tonia. We notice this s|MciM ban, only for the purpose of

remarking, that it is somaCif oonfiiaDded with the
first species of the next tribe. The distinguishing cha-
racters of both will be considered nton properij in a
subsequent p»g9-

Cmsv% II. Tbstooo. TORTOISES.

TuK TortoiiTM, under which we include the Em]fde$,
CMwda, and Tet'itdimrt of Dumeril, have all the toaa
fanuslMd with daws, but not distinct in all spcdcs,
aonc having them separate, while in others the tfistinc-
tion is marked only by the projecting daws. The shell
n gcncfaUy hard and bumy, but in a few spades it ia
atm aoft eonristanc*. The turtoiaw ftad p«y on w.
mUMta, mad partly on iniirts, worms, snails, and simi-
w ■aaU aainMla Smamtitktin faide on the borders
of kkaa and rivers; others livaantirdy on land. There
are about M spadca, wbicfa nwy be divided into two
Sactiopa, aceowliuf as tbay live moat cawnwaily on w»>

Sect. I. FrcsM-mder Tortoitet.

These have the toes distinct, and cencrally termina-
ted I17 cfvokcd daws In soma speacs the toes are eo>
tirely separate ; in otbers they are mora or laaa coanec^
ed i)^ laamtiTinai, or the feet are palnuted. They b'e
in or naar ftaab walar, but walk caiuly on land. Of
this Stctioa tiMva aaa abont 96 species, distinguished
by the foUowiaff aaaaa and cbanMarai

SiKcirs I. Teiim^Pertm. Fierce or soft tortoise.
Shdl ovate, brown, Isathsiy, tnberculaled beiot* and
behind ; three toes, fkmishad with nail* ; muule pnK
mincnt. cylindneaL

T. Frmx. Pnnant, PkU. Tram. voL Ixi. p. 9S(i.
Linn, a Gmalin, p^ 1099. Scboepff, Hut. Tetimi. p. 88.
pL six.

La Tortue de Pemmtmt, Daudin, i. p. 69. pi. xviii.

FlifTee T. Shaw, iii pi 6*. pL xvii.
La Tortue MoUe, Lacepede, L art. xiv.

Le TrioHifx de Georgie, Geotboy, Ann. de Mus. xiv. Chelonan
p. 1 7. • Reptiles,

2. r. Enphratiea, Euphratian T. Shield of an ob- EuphraUoiL
scure green, leathery, not tuberculated ; breastpUte
white and smooth

La T. de I'Eupkrate, Daud. i. p. 305.

Le Trionyx de I'Euphralr, Geoff. Ahh. xiv. p. 17.

S. T. 6arlrami. Cirrbated T. Shell soft ; feet five- Buwsmi.
toed, all the toes nailed ; nose elongated, and furnished
with retractile cirrhi.

La Tirtuf de Bartram, Daud. L p. 74.

Tettudo ytmicota Burlrami, Schoepff, p. 90.

4l T. rati rata. Beaked T. Shell orbiculo-ovate, nottisbb
leathery, carinated, rough, streaked with oblique fur-
rows flxan elevated points ; nose cylindrical ; three toes,
furnished with claws.

La lortue a btc, Daud. L p, 77.

7. rottrata, Schoepff. p Q^. pi. xx.

T. mewtbroMocta, Linn, a Gmelin.

he twioiufx tk carine, Geoff Ann. xiv. p. 14.

5. T- groHuiala. Shagreen T. Plates of the shield Cnaulsts.
granulated, naked, hard ; breastplate and margin of the

shield cartilaginoua.

La tortue ckagriiUe, Daud. L p. 81. Lacepede, i. art.
xxiv.

Letrionyx de Coromamdet, Geoff. Aiut. xiv. p. 1 6.

6. T. matamata. Matamata T. Shell oval, subcon- Mtumsta.
vex, tripiv carinated ; feet subdigitated ; no>e cylindri-
cal, iMMWanad into a proboscis ; neck fimbriated on

Ijg tortae siafaasafa, Daud. i. p. 86. pi. xx. fig. I.
TJmiriatm, Sdioapff, p. 97- pi xxi. Linn, a Gme-
lin.

Fimbriated T. Shaw, iiL p. 70. pi. xviii.
CbellfM£mbriaia,f Dumeril, Zooiag. Analut.

7. T. iitfimota. Two.»pined T. Dorsal plates IS,
alengatad, posteriorlv subimbncated, wrinkled, acutely
cartBatod; two of the marginal plates above the tad
acutely tw»4arkad.

La tortme damile epine, Daud. i. p. ()4.

8 T. lerptntima. Sefi>entine T. Dorsal plates sub- s«]>enuna.
carinated behind ; shidu marked behind witii five or

six tooth- like processes ; feet digitated.

La tortm* terpentine, Daud. 1. p. 98. pL xx. fig. S.
Ldoepade, i. art x.

T. eerpcnlina, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1042. SdMtepff,
p «<. nl. vi.

Smoke lortotM, Shaw, iii. pL xix.

9 T. tpemglrrt .Spenglerian T. Shield yellow, sub- spengleri.
cannated, posteriorly tix-toothed ; ncales imbricated.

La iwme e/iemgUrienme, Daud i. p. 103.

Tetlitdti tpemgteri, hum. a Gmelin, p 1043.

10. T./lava. bellow T. Shield of a blackish-brown fUts.
colour, with yellow ilots and Unes radiated on each plate.

Im lortue JauHe, Daud. L p. l(/7. Lacepede, i. art.
xiii.

T. orbiadarit, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1089.

IliissaAlks siksv '^•— •■'—-. vbkb ■(>*• bi ha*ia( th* shield aorc n l«s emitumm ar esttOSfpoous, hsTt bsco Utclj anangsd ua-
If M.GsaAsy St Ulan*, aadsrtlttaMDtar rV'tMw, •onlbdrramlbsirtenBC but three daws on csdtfooc Of thi»

teararahkhwahsTsooikirfiB thcltMsifTiMajrmcs. The isM srs ai follow.
■a« L« Tnoays A|lMi. /«*» rfc iVw» siv. p. II.
L* Tr. d'h^jptt, f. It-
wUbihs Ttl*d» friniyw of Owslifc
U Ti. mmU, p l£
TV. tarkUmm af ti^olln

in*. Is Tr. do Jar*. B, IA.

•Bifiialka»aeaHlaBad«hslana4astfsaafsBS*(nn»(CMjr«) io the modem French ■rruigcnwnt ; ■ nicely of distinc
naal is aispL Of this anus M. GcsAoy iceksos two ipedss, sod ihinkt th«r« may b« thns^ 8m
alv. p.18.

ihs

1. IV.

1. IV.

Th(
1 TV,

Tha
4, Tr.Ji

.iiMm.

20 L

IIERPETOLOGY.

Rrpulw.
Luuxu.

Cnpica.

phtlik
Scabn.

Subrufa.

Vertueosi,

GaUaU.

SeripUL

forghyTtt,

Beticulau.

Svmu.

Ccntnta.

, 'f. Kuw/xuff, JSchoapff, p. i. pi. u

SixckUd T. Shaw, lii. p. .'JO.
' Jl. T. iiitniia. Mud tortoise. Shield of a uniform
dnrk brown culour ; fibular or outermont toe of Uie
hind feet without claw.

/^ torlue bourbcute, .Daud. i. p. 115. Lacepede, i.
art. vii.

T. Iiiluria, Linn. « (Jnielin, p. 104O.

Mud lorioitg, Slutw, iii. p. S2. pi. 6.

lU. T cospica. Cmpijin T. ."^hell orbicular; five
nails on the fore-feet, and lour on the hind; head scaly;
MO tail.

La torlue caspienne, Daud. i. p. 124.

T. ca%pn:a, Linn. aGniel. p. 104-1.

13. T melanocephala. Ulackheaded T. Shell ches.
nut-coloured ; head and feet black ; tail short

Ln lorlue a liie noire, Daud. i. p. 128.

14. T. icabra. Rough T. Upper part of the shield
rough, yellowish, irregularly spotted and striped witli
brown ; margiiml plates 25 ; feet palmated ; one hind
toe without ciaw.

J^ lorlue rabottietut, Daud. i. p. ISQ- Lacepeue, i.
art. xviii.

T. scabra, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1040.

15. T. subrufa. Reddish or brown T. Shell ches-
nut-coloured ; plates of the disk flattened, smooth in
the middle, streaked on the margin; plate»(Of the
breastplate 13; all the feet five-clawed.

La tortus roussdlre, Daud. i. p. ISS. Lacepede, i.
art. XXV.

16. T. verrucosa. Warty T. Shell covered with
warty prominences ; notched round the margin; all the
feet four-clawed.

Li toriue a vermes, Daud. i. p. 134.

T. verrucosa, Walbaum, Chelonograph, p. 116.

T.tcabra. Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1040.

17. T. Galeala. HeKneted tortoise. Shell oval, de-
pressed ; three dorsal intermediate plates, acutely cari-
nated ; marginal plates 24 ; head plated ; lower mandi-
ble furnished with filiform cirrhi.

La tortue a casque, Daud. i. p. 1 36.

T. galeata, Schoepff, p. 12. pi. iii. fig. 1.

Galeated T. Sliaw, iiu p. 57. pi. xii.

18. T. scripta. Manuscript T. Shell orbicular, de-
pressed; plates marked above with characters; margi-
nal plates 25, spotted on the lower part.

La tortue ecrile, Daud. i. p. 140.

T. scripta, Schoepff, p. 16 pi. iii. fig. 4. and 5.

iMIered T. Shaw, iii. p. 57. pi. xii.

19- T. porphyrea. Porphyry T. Shell of an ochry
red colour, scantily spotted with obscure green and
brown ; four squamous tubercles at the anus.

La tortue jtorphi^ree, Daud. i. p. 142.

20. T. reticulata. Reticulated T. Shield streaked
and reticulated with black and brown, witli yellowish
lines in the middle of the plates; marginal plates not
toothed, three spotted at-the juncture with the breast-
plate.

La tortue reliculaire, Daud. i. p. 144. pi. xxi. fig. 3.

21. T. serrata. Serrated T. Shell marked above
with transverse brown and yellow bands; posterior
marginal plates not toothed; lateral margin at the junc-
ture of the brea.stplate five-spotted.

La tortue a bard en icie, Daud. i. p. 148. pL xxi. fig.

«8. T. cenlrata. Concentric T. Dorsal and margi-
nal plates marked with two or four black concentric
circles ; breastplate yellow, without spots, notched be-
hmd.

La lortue a lignes concentriques, Daud. i. p. 153.
Concentric tortoise, Shaw, p. 43. pi. ix.

23. T. jiunclata. Dotted T. Shell oval, moderately
convex ; dorsal plates and head smooth and black dot.
ted with yellow.

La tortue pnncluce, Daud. i. p. 159. pi- xxii.
2'. punctata, Schoepff, p. 25. pi. v.
Spotted T. Sliaw, iii. p. 47. pi. x.

24. T. picta. Painted T. Shield oblong, convex,
very smooth; plates nearly square, brown, bordered
with yellow ; breastplate as long as the shield.

La tortue peinte, Daud. i. p. 164.
T. picta, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1045. Schoepff, p. 20.
pi. iv.

Painted tortoise, Shaw,.iii. p. 45. pi. x.

25. T. martiiiella. Martinella T. Shell a little flat-
tened, oval, marked on the back with two longitudinal
ridges; plates of the breastplate 13.

La tortue martinelle, Daud. viii. p. 344.

26. T. tricarinala. Three-ridged T. Shell orbicu-
lar ; three-ridged, vertebral plates transverse.

La tortue retzienne, Daud. i. p. 174.
T. tricarinala relzii, Schoepff, p. 9- pl- ''•
Tortue a trois carhtes, Latreille, Hist, des Rep. i, p.
118.

Tricarinated T. Shaw, iii. p. 54. pi. xi.

27. T. scorpioides. Scorpion T. Shell oval, longi-
tudinally three ridged j vertebral plates oblong, poste-
riorly imbricated.

La torlue a trois carenes, Daud. i. p. 1 78.
La tortue icorpion, Lacepede, i. art. xii.
T. scorpioides, Linn, a Gmelin, p. lOH.

28. T. amboinensis. Amboyna T. Shield convex,
smooth, brown, both it and breastplate bordered with
yellow ; head compressed, brown, cheeks and beak ra-
diated with yellow ; feet palmated.

Jm lorlue d'amboine, Daud. viii. p. 34'5.

29. T. Pennsylvanica. Pennsylvanian T. Upper part
of the shield smooth, uniformly reddish, flaltish in the
middle ; three of the vertebral plates hexagonal, oblong,
imbricated behind, the first and fifth being elongated,
and nearly triangular ; marginal plates 25 ; tail tipped
with a claw.

T. rougeatre, Daud. i. 182. pi. xxiv. Lacepede, i.
art 2.

T. Pennsylvanica, Linn, a Gmel. i. 1 042. Schoepff,
pi. xxiv. fig. A.

Pennsylvanian T. Shaw, iii. p. 60. pi. xiv.

30. T. odorata. Odorous T. Shield smooth, uni-
formly brownish, flattish in the middle ; marginal plates
23 ; breastplate moveable only in front ; tail tipped with
a claw.

T. odoranle, Daud. 1. 189.

31. T. glulinala. T. a balans soudecs, Daxid. i. I9i.
This, which is marked by Daudin as a distinct species,
seems to be only a variety of the preceding, differing in
the immobility of the breastplate.

32. T. subnigra. Blackish T. Shield rounded, con-
vex ; plates streaked at the margin, smooth in the mid-
dle; vertebral plates carinated; plates of breastplate 13.

7\ noiralre, Daud. i. 197- Lacep. i. art. 28.

33. r. virpulata. Striped T. Shell dark brown, with
numerous yellow spots ; vertebral plates longitudinally
carinated.

T. a goulellettes, Daud. i. 201.

34. T. clausa. Close T. Sliell browni.sh, striped on
the back with yellow ; vertebral plates longitudinally
subcarinated; middle of the breastpkte a little com-
pressed.

Chelonian
Reptiles.

Punctata.

Picta.

Martinella.

Tricarinatat

Scorpioides-

Aniboinen-
liis.

Penns)ilTa-

nica.

Odorata,

GUitinata.

Subnign.

Viigulata,

Claiua.

HERPETOLOGY.

21

^TOica.

k

Flatk
•rXcVL

TtbtiUa.

p. 36. pi. viL

T. a baiie, Dand. i. SOT.

t'lo»e lortoitf, Shaw, iii. p. 36. pi,

iS. T. anolinfama. Ciiniliiia T. Shell brown bay,
nunlMd above with ; elluw line» uid tpoti; doml plates
■triUHl; reitebnl plates longttodinaUjr carinated, !«•
Ural MbgiUMma.

T. iMMutei/meme, Dand. i. SOT. Lacep. i. art. xxr.

T.mnlma. Linn.aChnel 10! 1. 1013.

T. eUmm, ScfaoeplT. p. 32. pi. viL

96. T.tjuamalm. Scaly T. Shdl orate ; body, neck,
tail and feM tcalr abore, smooth and soft bcluw.

T. temilUum de Br

T. tqitamala. Linn .2.

bciT. II. Lmd Torimtgx

In the meek* that belong to this aecttOB, the toes an
ii fran each other, but are niiitod below the

ak_ J une broad espannoa, from the inarein of

whicb appear the claws. They however walk, tJiotiffh
with • very slow pace, on the ground ; and live diiany
on woraM and faiaecla. There are 16 species, >t2.

Spieitt S7. T. griKcm. Comnon hmd T. Shield b*.
mi^pheiwal ; plate* of the disc Mboaorex, vertebral
plates subgtbboas: mannna] ^, obtuse at the aides;
the whole sldeM blM^ and yellow. See Pkte CCXCVI.
Fi,r.«._

Dand. L S18. Lecepcde, t. L p. I.

Lm T. grtequt,
art. xvi. bL t.

i tM9tt9 fftfce,

pw dft. pL vnL

Linn, a Gmciin, p. lOiS. Schcepff,

58. T.
convex, eil
shade Of yellow

'lactnl*-

SImw, iii p. 9.

f«. Bonfemi T. Shield oblcag,
dovMl pklas Uaekisb-brown, with a
in the middle; marginal S3 or S4,
obliqaeiy marked with black and yellow.
T. ionUe, Dead. L SSS.
T. mmrfimmtm, SchocpflT. p. 52 pL ii.
MmnimmHd- tortortr. Shaw. iiL p. 17.
99. 7. tmbmluta. Inlaid T. Shield eblong. gibbotu ;
plate* of the disc rectangular, sabgibboos, Aarrowed,
black, with yellow linct; maginid plate* SS, black
with yellaw below.

T. a wMfmrtrrit. Dand. t ?4S.

7. loMMa, linn, a f ;.

roMsr tmioite, Shaw. i i . pL vSL

40. r. pmrtmhrm. Spatted T. Shd a Iktie flat-
tened, broad, snlmifafd ; bceaatpitt nearly of the
■Mi taagtll with the shsdd ; hod black above, spotted
with yelww, entirsiy ytUow beknr. Daud. i. mg.

41. T. fnlypkewnu. Gopher T. Snout slender and
sharp ; pUftes thin, of a greyish ash colour ; claws flat
and rooadish. Dand L i56.

T.gofktr, Bertrao'B TVosefr.

4*. T. gtmmHikm. Geometrical T. Shell orate; all
the plarln eleilsd. bat flat on the ton, marked with
yen** Kraaks radbtinc ftum a centae at each plate.

T. gnrnttBinfM!, Dand. L 9Ga Laoepedc, i. art. xvii.

T.tnmtttiiM, Linn, a Ooselm, p. 1044k Scfaoepff,
p.49.pl.x.

Geesstirfaa/iBrfotJe. Shaw, iiL p. SO.

4S. T. afcynt. Elegant T. Shell hemispherical ;
pktee ftuiwwl, eooeez, Ifaor^ttiped, with flat araolsr

T. efq^M/r. DMd. L tML
7. elmnu, Scboepr, p. 111. pL nv.
4«b 7. emi. Shidd rouad, higyy convex ; plates
ialMaad, with proBiucut red arcoht ; three

9

Cheloniaa
Reptile

AieoUU.

Ca&a.

JuvencnU.

FaicUta.

PiuOIa.

middle Tertebral pktes radiated of a deep yellow late«
rally ; lateral plates radiated below.

La TortHt coui, Daud. L 271. pi. xxvL

45. T. lutcola. Yellowish T. Shield rounded, gib-
bous, yellow, with «ub-gibbous plates.

T. luleoU, Daud. i. 277-

46. T. indica. Indian T. Shield convex ; anterior
marginal plates reflected upwards.

La loiiue indicnne, Daud. L 280.

7. indka, Linn, a Gmelin. Schoepff, p. 101 . pL xxii.

IndioH lorloite, Shaw, iii. p. 25.

47' T. areolata. Areolated T. Shield ovato-ob-
loog, moderately convex ; plates nearly square, eleva-
ted, deeply furrowed, with rough depressed areoLe.

La T. (irfolce, Daud. L 287-

7. areolata, SchoepfT, p. I0». pi. xziii.

48. 7. tafra. Cafre T. Shield flatli.«h, broad ; plates
flat, except the la<rt vertebml, whicli is gibbous ; yel-
low, el«;*ntly sprinkled with black dots ; marguud
plates of thcslueld 27.

La T. cafrr, Daud. i. 291.

49. T.juvotc^iU. Juvencula T. Shield square ob-
long, litUe gibbous, with concave grained areolae ;
plates of the disc 1 S, yellow, with black radiated points ;
marginal plates 26.

La T juvemcule, Daud. viiL p. 348.

50. T.fudata. Banded T. Shiekl brown-bay, with
a white transverse band in tlie plates of the disc ; first
vertebral plate cannated ; marginal plates 27-

La T. ajntcict biancktt a CtiloH, Daud. i. p. 294.

51.7. fHuiUa. Dwarf T. Plates of the shield va-
riegated witTi l>lack, white, purole, green, and yellow ;
breastplate white ; a red tubercle on the neck.

La T. vermitloa, Daud. L 299. Lacepede i. ait
xxiL

7. ptaiU*. Linn, a Gmelm, p. 1(H4.

A/rieam land tortoise, Edwanls' GUaninet.

52 T. denliculata. Denticulated T. ^eld orbictt-
late cordate, denticulated at the margin ; plates hexa-
gonal ; feet four-clawed.

La 7. daUiUe, Daud. L p. 303. Lacepede, L art.
xix.

7. denticMlala, Linn, a Gmrlin, p. 1043.

Dmlicmlated 7. Sliaw, p. 59- pi. xiii.

SrKdxal. TeMadoferox. Fierce tortoise. Pierce tor-

There are several species of the Chelonian order toue.
which have the shield softer than the ordinary shell of
most sprdrs. This is the case with the 6th species of
the fanner tribe, and with at least four of the present.
The coriaceous turtle, or Luih of the French writers,
and the soft-shelled tortoise of Pennant, though agree-
ing in the comparative softness of their external cover-
ing, differ very materially in general form, liabitation,
and manners. The coriaceous turtle has an oblong bo-
dy, covered immediately with a bony shell ; but that
shell is invested with a Un\fi^ memliranous coat ref«m-
bling leatlier, plaited longittulinally, and the shield
terminates behind in an acute point, overhanging the
tail. The body of the fierce tortoise is rounder and
more convex, and the middle part of the shield is hard ;
but its margin, especially towards the tail, is soft and
pliable, resembling thin sole-leather, and the hind part
u rounded. The tail of the first species is long, and
ytry thick at the root ; that of the acoand very short
and smalL The head ef the fanner is small, round,
and terminates in a beak, resembling the bill of a bird ;
that of the latter is proportionally larger and longer,
with a long tapering cylindrical snout, bsviog some

Oeaticola-
ta.

ChdooitB

Mod c»r-
toisc

bad IOC.

Mm.

HER FETOLOGY.

broader behind than before. The breastplate is nearly Clielonian
of equal size with the shield, and is of a pale yellow Repules.
colour, witli a broad dark stripe down each side, while ^""V"^
the middle part of the shield is of a blackish brown, Common
mixed with yellow. The head is small, and covered '"?■* ^''
on its upper part with irregular scales; the mouth is "'*''*
small, the legs short, and the feet pretty broad, and
covered with strong ovate scales. The tail is very
short, scaly, and terminated at its extremity with a
curved horny process. It seldom weighs above three
pounds.

This species is entirely confined to the land, and pre-
fers elevated woody situations. It is found iu Europe,
Asia, and Africa, and is very common on all the coasts
of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in Sardinia, Bar-
bary, and probably in Egypt. It is not a little curi-
ous, that, even in the warmer climates, this species re-
gularly retires to its subterranean quarters during the
winter months ; thus proving what we have before re-
marked, that the hybernation of these animals does not
depend solely on the degree of cold. It begins to bury
itself in October, and usually makes a hole about two
feet below the surface, where it continues till April.

The males of this species are in summer tolerably ac
tive, and very fierce towai-ds each other. The female
lays her eggs towards the end of June, depositing them
in a hole, and covering them with sand or mould.
They seldom exceed five in number at one time, and
are of a white colour, and about the size of those of a
pigeon. They are hatched towards the end of Septem-
ber ; and the young, when first extruded, are scarcely
bigger than walnut-shells.

The individuals of this species live on roots, fruits,
worms, and insects, the shells of which latter they ea-
sily break with their strong jaws.*

The land tortoise is often domesticated, especially in
gardens. We shall select the account of a tame tor-
toise, given by the Rev. Mr White of Selborne, as a
pleasing specimen of the manners of these animals in a
state of captivity. This individual had been in pos-
session of a lady for upwards of thirty years. It re-
gularly retired below ground about the middle of No-
vember, and did not emerge till the middle of April.
Its appetite was voracious in the middle of summer,
but it ate very little in spring and autumn. It seemed
greatly alarmed if surprised by a shower of rain during
its peregrinations in search of food ; and though its
shell was so thick that it could scarcely have been in-
jured by the wheel of a loaded cart, it discovered as
much solicitude to avoid rain, as a fine lady in her gay-
est attire, shuflSing away on the first sprinklings, and
making for some shelter. Whenever the old lady, its
mistress, who usually waited on it, came in sight, it
always hobbled, with awkward alacrity, towards its
benefactress, though to strangers it appeared quite in-
attentive. It never stirred out after dark ; often ap-
peared abroad only for a few hours in the middle of the
day; and in wet days never came from its retreat
Though it loved warm weather, it carefully avoided
the hot sun, and passed the more sultry hours under
the shelter of a large cabbage leaf, or amid the friend-
ly shades of an asparagus bed. Towards autumn, how,
ever, he appeared anxious to improve the effect of the

S2

KWmbbuice to that of the mole. The coriaceous tur-
tle i* an inhabitant of the sea, is frequently found in
the Mediterranean, and has been seen even on the coast
of Britain. The fierce tortoise has yet been found onl^
in the rivers and fresh water lakes of America, especi-
ally in Floriila and Carolina. The former is a large
species, otlen measuring above seven feet in length ;
the latter seldom weighs above seventy pounds.

The fierce tortoise frequents lakes and muddy rivers,
and hides itself among the water plants that grow at
the bottom, froni which it is said to spring suddenly
on its prey. This consists of small water animals, and,
in some places, more particularly of young crocodiles,
of which this species is extremely fond. They seize
their prey by suddenly darting forward their long and
strong neck, which they do with great celerity.

This species is among the strongest and most active
of its tribe, and, as its trivial name implies, is possess-
ed of ferocity and courage. When attacked, it boldly
defends itself, rising on its hind legs, and leaping for
ward to seize on its assailant ; and if once it fixes with
its jaws on any part, it is scarcely made to let go its
hold without cutting off its head.

The fierce tortoise forms an excellent article of food,
at least not inferior to the green turtle.

Sp. II. T. lularta. The mud tortoise.

This is one of the smallest of the fresh water tor-
toises ; its whole length, from the snout to the tip of
the tail, seldom exceeding eight inches, while in breatlth
it is not more than three or four. It is of a blackish or
dark brown colour. Its tail is nearly half the length of
the shield, and is stretched out when the animal walks.
Hence the mud tortoise has been sometimes called by
the ancients mus aquntilis, or water rat.

This is a very frequent inhabitant of lakes and mud-
dy rivers in the south of Europe, and in many parts of
Asia. It is very plentiful in France, especially in the
provinces of Languedoc and Provence. It lives almost
entirely in the water, only going on land to lay its
^gs, which it covers with mould. It moves with a
quicker pace on land than many of this tribe ; when
disturbed, it utters a kind of interrupted hissing sound.
It feeds on fish, snails, and worms, and often proves
a troublesome inmate in fishponds, killing many of
the fish, and biting others till they are nearly exhausted
from loss of blood.

It has been proposed to employ the mud tortoise for
destroying vermin in gardens ; but it is necessary to
have a pond or large vessel of water for its ordinary re-
sidence. With such a convenience, it may be render-
ed tame and domestic.

The young of this species, when first hatched, are
not an inch in diameter. They continue to grow for a
long time, and are known to live for at least twenty,
four years.

Sp. 86. T. Graeca. Common land tortoise.

Several varieties of tortoise, known both to ancient
and modem naturalists, have l)cen described under the
name of Greek ; and, according to Daudin, Schoepff
was tile first to remedy this confusion, and to mark
each by its distinctive characters. The species of which
we are now treating seldom exceeds ten inches in
length ; is «f aiv oval form, with a very convex shield,

J*Jrf Ai.'^Thl''H.l''T '**"• '" *"^ author with which we are acquainted, that land tortoises are accustomed to drink. The
«iMf of dm utaole h«, bteljr, however, ascertained ihc fact, that althout;!, they can Uve without drink for years thev swallow liouids

wt "l^rnlrf y ' ," "'^""^ *"• '^'"" ■" '"' 'P""«- ^ '""^ "•""■"••' "h''" ''=« been in the pes cssLTrf a c/rpenfer at ^^rt^-
i^^l^T^nk Jl^ ^ 1 vlv •'. '"/'"'• *"? """/ ''"°"" '" *'""'' <"■ "» »™ «"<"•'• »"' the spring of this year (181o7then i h^ r1-
S^SUr.SX».Lretn"utv" sS«'' '^'r- . ^T*^ """" "^ '!'■«' d-p'into'the fluidf so L ^ coier e^en it'Ty^"
un Hcn gTMiuuiy, ua umMt irojierceptiWy, sucks it up, so u to dnnk some ounces in the course of s quarter of an hour.

HERPETOLOGY.

23

ScplUn.

fkOMtAW

Onlo.

faiiit sunbeaint, hj

gating
its »heil

under the reflection
rail, and inclining it« »he!l towards the »un. In i
ping the ground to form its winter retreat, it dug with
lUfec* feet, and threw up the earth over ita back with
ha hinder feet ; but the motion of itt legs was so slow,
m acweely to be obaervcd ; and though it worked with
the gf«atMt Maidnhv both night and day, it was more
tlMB a totaiglit bmre it h^ coinpleted ita inhuma-
tion.

How long an animal of this species may live, we
cannot determine ; but it is known at least, that their
age may exceed a centory. One of them was introdu-
ced into the nrden of Lambeth palace in the time of
Archbishop Land, was living a hundred and twenty
yean afterwards, and died at laat rather froin the ne-
glect of the gardener thai ftvn tweemn age.

The land torlaiaa tonm aa exoaDant article of food,
though it ia acmrijr eaplayed far that pvrpose. es>
oept in Gfceea. The agga, however, are eaten very
oanmaniy in Italy.

Dandin iiwiiiiiilai cwfat varieties of the Crrek tor*
toise, allof whtefaareoTa veiy diminutive size, and
chiefly in the sorftce md raiiagations of the

AflMi^ the noMrana fbaaQ raauina of m ancient
world tfaM hMre kttljr bean dheofand. ai« aeveral that
bdonc to the tmtoiie ttAaai Thew have been fcnad
at M^u ; in the aatiruHa of Berlin ; in the ftraal of
Leipaic ; at Ais in the south of France ; in the neigi^
bourheed of Bniaiela; n the nonntainii of St Pierre
near Maealrkhl ; md in the phwf ■■err lai near Piaia.
These liwiiina have bean daaiBied bv Fanjas da 8t
Food m hia aeeoMK of the ■iiiitain af 8t Pierte, and
by Caviar in the 14lh vaL of the Jeaelrt de Mmtmmt,
p. t>9. Frea theae Moaanta we gather, that, hiadu
mmj spedca either aoar cKtiacl. cr to na unknown,
renaina hare baaB fcnad of the grera lurile, of the
raiftfiMfad^ carctta, and sersawBOi turtles ; and of at
I {T.JIava, or Emroptm) of ftuah water

Okd» II. SAURIAN REPTILES.

what we have said rsapecting thn order, in
il arraagaaent. p. i, «• najr remark, that,
fai OMat of the ipacieih there ia as lenaMe neck, or re-
markable contractioa betaeau the head aad body ; that
they have all a Icngthaaad thorax, fNtmHad by the
ribs; that their tail ia OMat eeauaaalyi«aBdod,tii(Nigh
in soaw tribes it is oonnnaad lalanlly, than aenri^g
the parDoae of a fc, Mni|{ varf adoMa pnhansile.
The iinib^ which are always diart, are hi a few in-
ftaneaa oahr two in aumber. The aen^bcr of the toes
aad flf Ihav cwpuaent jomta, as well aa their form
mi mpailiie situation, difar eonadcrably. All the
pd« chage their riun cvwj ipri^ Their jaws,
tn«gh dwy cam— cniy expand very oonsadenbly, ne>
w snmte ftom each odiar at the articatotion, as we
ahall hvaaftar find to be the case with aerpmta. They
all find on ihriy aaimala. Their voice a weak, aad
wwhim m daff hfaa or whiatle. They copulate, lav
eags eoveicd with a caloBrcoos or meaibraaoaa shell,
wficfa they deposit ia the earth or aaad, bat do not aa.
Mt m hatching thaaa. They are in general very active
and veracious. Moat of the saedea an inhabiunu of
the warmer dimatcs, few of thaaa being found in the
northern countries. It haa beaa leaiarkcd, that in
this <ader are (bund nearly the krgett and the
ef the poftct animals.

Family I. Saitri Planicaudati. Flat-tailr) Satjrians. Ssuritn

Brpiues.

Genus I. Crocodilus. CROCODILES. — '^"^

In this tribe, the back and bellj- are coverctl with C«oc«-
large plates ; the head is brcxad and flat; the tongue short, °^^ ^*"
fleshy, and adhering to the lower jaw ; the tail very
much comp^e»^e<i, and armed above with a serrated
crest, at firtt double, but single towards the tip. Thc^
have four strong feet, of which the hinder have Ave
toes, more or less palmated, only three being furnish-
ed with nails. All the species are capable of living
both in water and on land ; they f^nrrally inhabit the
former, but move with ease upon the latter.

Daudin has enumerated seven species, which he ar-
range* under three Sections, as follows.

Sect. I. CncodSa fnperly to catted.

Snout long and flat ; one tooth on each side of the SpcdsL
lower jaw, prolonged outwards, and shutting into a
groove in the upper jaw.

SraciEs 1. Croeodilu* nilolicu*. Nilotic crocodile, yjjotjcg,,
Muasle flat and oblong ; fourth tooth of the lower jaw
resting against the edge of the upper jaw : six large Pitrz
carin^ed platca upon the neck. PUte CCXCVT. CC.XCVI.
Fig. 5. "^ *^ »"«»•

Lt crocodile de Nil, Daud. ii. p. S67, pi. xxviL fig. I .
Le cracodtU, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. I .
Lscerlm troeedHmt, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 10S7>
Comwwm crocodUe, Shaw iii. p|. |v. Ivi. Ivii.
Under this species, Daudin ranks as varieties the
'" r of Senegal, the black crocodile, and the ln>

Sect. II. Gwoiaii.

Mnxale lengthened, narrow, nearly cvlindrical ; two
teeth at leeat en each side of the lower jaw, prolonged
upwarda beaide the upper jaw.

Sp.9. C. Immntlrit. Long-beaked crocodile. Mui- liDgint-
sle double the kngth of the head ; both jawk furnish- '™-
cd with 97 teeth on each aide ; four carinated plates,
diaaoaed in a square upon the neck.

Lm crotodUe d kmg bee, ou le petit gatial, Daud. i.
S99-

Sp. S. C. AnHrottrit. Narrow-beaketl C. OangKic Aretireitris.
('. .Muislc narrow, as long as the head; upper jaw
furnished with 88 teeth on each aide ; loWer jaw with
onlv 25 on each side ; two carinated plates upon the

Le crocodile d bee etroit, ou le grand gonial, Daud. i.
380. pL xxviL flg. 8.

Lt gmoiml, Laeefedit, vol. i. part iL art 3. pi. xti.

Ijoetrtm gmmgitieo, Lirni. a GmeL p. 1057-
Ijomg-moted eroeodiU, Edwards, PhU. Trant, %\\x.
p. 699. pi. xix.

Cmgtim enetdiU, Shaw, iii. p. 197. pi. be.

Sect. III. Caiman*.

Muasle broad, flat, and obtuse ; the fourth tooth of
the lower jaw received into a particular ouaty of the
upper jaw, by which it is concealed.

Sp. 4w C. caiman. Caiman crocodile. Beak flat, a Caimas.
little narrower than the head ; jaw* furnished with 1 9
teeth on each side; 14 carinated plates, diqiosed in
five rows upon the neck.

IjC crocodile caiman, Daud. i. p. 399-

Lacerta aUigalor, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1058. No. Ii.

AOigator, Smw, iii. p. 19S. pi. hx.

Sp. 6. C. yaam. Yacare C. Mustle blunt, a Utile Yacar*.

S4

maWppi-

t-atinxtri*.

elevated; j»ws furnished with 19 teeth on each side;
two fore teeth of the lower jaw elongated, and passing
through the up|»er jaw. Daud. i. p. 407.

Sp 6'. C. Misiissippiensis. Mississippi C. or alligator.
Muule broad and flattened ; four carinated scales, dis-
posed in a square upon tl\e neck.

I ^ crocodile da Musissippi, Daud. i. p. 412.

Alligator, or Florida crocodile, Bartram's Travels in
South America.

Sp. 7. C. Intiroslris. Broad-beaked crocodile Muz-
zle broad and fl.ittcned; jaws furnished with 19 teeth
on each side ; eight scales, disposed in four pairs upon
the neck.

Le crocodile li large muncau, Daud. i. p. 417.

Perhaps this may be considered as a variety of the
alligator, from which it appears to differ only in the
number and disposition of the plates on the neck.

Such is the arrangement of Daudin. We must now
notice die classification of Cuvier, as given in the 10th
volume of the AnnaUt de Museum.

Essential Characters of the Genus.

Tail flattened at the sides ; hind feet palmated or
semipalmated ; tongue fleshy, attached to the floor of
the mouth, except at its edge ; teeth sharp, simple,
ranged in a single row ; penis single.

Subgenera and Species, with their essential Characters.
Subgenus I. Alligators. (Sect. III. DaucUn.)

Species 1. Cr. Indus. Muzzle parabolic, depressed ;
scales on the neck four. Native of North America.

2. Cr. sclerops. A transverse ridge between the or-
bits ; neck furnished with four bony bands. Native of
Guiana and Brasil.

3. Cr. palpebrosus. Bony palpebrse ; neck furnish-
ed with four bony bands.

4. Cr. trigonatus. Bony palpebrae ; neck furnished
with irregular triangular carinated scales.

Subgenus II. Crocodiles. (Sect. I. Daudin.)

5. Cr. vulgaris. Muzzle equal ; scales of the neck
six ; those of the back in sixes, square. Native of
Africa.

6. Cr. biporcatus. Muzzle furnished with two ridges
nearly parallel ; plates of the neck six ; scales of the
back in eights, oval. Native of the Indian islands.

7. Cr. rhombifer. Muzzle sub-convex, with two con-
verging ridges ; plates of the neck six ; scales of the
back in sixes, square, those of the limbs thick and ca-
rinated.

8. Cr. galeatus. Top of the head furnished with a
two-toothed elevated crest; plates of the neck six. Na-
tive of India beyond the Ganges.

9. Cr. biscutatus. Intermediate scales of the back
s<)uare; outer ones irregular both in form and situa-
tion ; plates of llie neck two.

10. Cr. acuius. Intermediate scales of the back
square ; outer ones irregular ; plates of the neck six ;
muzzle elongated and convex at the base. Native of
the Antilles.

SwBOENus III. Longiroftret, or Gavials. (Sect. II. Daud.)

11. Cr.gangeiicus. Top of tlie head and orbits trans-
verse ; two small plates on the neck.

1 2. Cr teniiirottris. Top of the head and orbits con-
tncted ; four small plates on the neck.

M. Geoffroy St Hilaire, in a second Memoir on Cro-
codUes, xn the tenth volume of the Aniuk* de Museum,

HERPETOLOGY.

has formed another species of Nilotic crocodile, under
the trivial name Siichn.t ; but his account of it is not
sufficiently precise to determine its specific differences.
As we have already, under the article Crocodile,
given a comprelieiisive account of the three principal
species of this tribe, viz. the crocodile of the Nile, the
alligator, and the Gangetic crocodile, or caiman, we
shall at present dispense with any thing more on the
natural history of these animals.

Saurian
Reptiles.

Species.
Guianentit.

Plate
CCXCVI.
Fig. 4.

Genus II. DnACiENA. DRAGON.

In this genus the body is covered with large rounded Dhacxsa
scales, (those upon the back being carinated,) dispo- Genus,
eed in transverse bands, and separated by numerous
other very small scales that are round and carinated.
The head is thick, compressed laterally, and covered at
the top with several smooth scales. Some of the teeth
in the fore part of the jaws are sharp- pointed, and those
behind are broad and flat like the molares of quadru-
peds. The tongue is forked at its distal extremity ;
and the tympanum of the ear is apparent externally of
a round form. The lower part of the body is covered
with smooth scales, disposed in transverse bands. The
tail is covered on that half next the body with plates,
which form on its upper part first four, and then two
toothed ridges, while the remaining half is covered
with rough rhomboidal scales, carinated and imbricated.
The four feet are each furnished with five long toes
completely separated from each other, and terminated
by claws.

There is only one species, viz.

Species 1. Draccena guianemis. Guiana dragon.

La JDragonc de la Giiian, Daud. i. p. 423. pi. xxviii.
, La Dragone, Lacepede, vol i. part ii. art. 5. pi. xiii.

Lacerta dracama, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1059.

Draccena lizard, Shaw, iii. p. 218. pi. 67.

See Plate CCXCVI. Fig. 4.

This animal in many respects resembles the smaller
crocodiles, differing from them chiefly in its forked
tongue and distinct toes. It is of a reddish-brown co-
lour, shaded with green. It is from two to four feet
in length, of which the tail is about one half. This
latter organ is very thick at its proximal extremity, ta-
pering gradually towards the point, and is strong and
flexible.

The dragon has hitherto been found only in South
America, and chiefly in Guiana. It is a land animal,
frequents the savannahs and marshy plains; readily
climbs trees, and hides itself when in danger from cro-
codiles or other enemies. Both its flesh and eggs are
used as articles of food.

Gbnus III. Basiliscus. BASILISK.

The body in this tribe is thicker in proportion to its
length than many of the order, and its whole surface,
as well as that of the head, neck, tail, and limbs, is co-
vered with small scales that are generally rhomboidal,
and a little carinated. The head is short and pretty
thick, especially towards the back part; the tongue
broad, thick, flat, rounded at its tip, not extensile, and
almost wholly attached within the lower jaw. The
throat is susceptible of inflation. The tail is long, very
much compressed laterally, and surmounted at least
along its anterior half, with a high vertical crest that is
radiated, capable of beuig folded together, and scaly.

Basilis-
cus Gerni^

H E R P E T O L O G Y.

t5

MitntiM.

'■ I.

Tbe feet ate rather thick and lon^ and furniatted each
with fire toe*. Icnniaating in daws.

There are two spedca, via.

SptdtM 1 . Batikuut mitrttmt. Mitred basiliak. Tail
ki^ and potntad ; back of tb* iMad kurmounted with a
very hi^ mitre.abapcd inemfaraie. See Plate CCXCVI.
Fig. 5.

Lt BmtUic pntfrewmU iU^ ou « etfttehon, Daud. iil
p. 3ia pL xlii

Le Ba»iUc, Laecfrnfe, voL L part ii. art. 14.

LoBtrla htuHimmt, Unn. a Gntelin, lOCii.

S. B. amheaumm. Aanboiiia B. Tail long; head
nalud, dofwl CMit pcctiaatML

Lt B. rm^mMa dtJkA tim; Daud. iu. p. sn.

Lr porU-rrUa, l^atffdtk «>!• •• part ii. ait. 15.

Ijacrria amMmuit, Linn, a Gntelia, p^ i06*.

The animak abow chMMteracd, thoogh augular in
their external apyriiCT, have nathing of the terrible
aspect and daadqr prapcrtica of the baailiak, to re.
nownedaiMMtbitwrilan of antiquity. See liAt-iuKK.
They are hanuWaa inofanave crcaturea, enlivenini; the
wooda of America and Aaia with thair active aotiwu.
AaMird bjr the craat on thair back and tail, ihajr bap
with agilitjr fton btBach fe» bnnch, thwMh thmy have
no prataaaiao* to fl^init. *» waa aupj^aaad ojr Saba. It
ia not certain whether ihejr bei|yaHt the water, but if
ihtj do, their ueaud iuBbranei oMat act aa &U.

GkXO> IV. Tl7riM4llBtS.

TheaniaMk of thia tribe have the back and ballr ei^

The hMd iaoaweted withMMMnoaaoMdlacalai^aBd,
M well aa the neck, ia lent aad thin. TheMifMia
I. end fothad. The bedv U Iw^ Md
ef • foUnt aaekc. The ud k ««]r kng,
at iu bMe. ■Iwhtljr vettidOiaid. ar
with a very ■oMUaetiUeai^ioin aame
hnfmlhinotheta. The >et are tWBg,and
Ime eech tea leea aayanaail and ftwiihad with dawa.

The tnpineiahaa ere very active, live hath on
and in the water, feed oo i

an wood mice, ftnita^ and iafaaa^ The
aaak greedily afWlheana
they enaAilly avoid the
■Mto, which, in their torn, prejr (
Tbcjr an all naiivaa ef wann
cUaiy in South America, V^jpt, and tbe Eaat Indica.
Dawdin haa tharaettiiMd fbartccn apeciaa, which he
diatffiNrtaa aadar tw» SactioM ea Iblkwa :
SacT. I. 7W|pMM«Aar milk Ikt Tmii geeyuwrf aarf
««/de.
/fprriety. TiqnnumUt wtamMor. Saflmard tnpinam*
bk. Head covfrvd with pretty kfge nalea ; back black,
with foor lonjtitndiraU ltn<f« and tranavrrae white beoda,
intfy\m\f di«p«Md ; belly whitidi, with black ahadei;
tail vcrr Bttle ri)iH|ireaM>i

Lt Tufimmwtbit prtpremeiit Hi, en Seeeataii/, Daud.
W. p. 20.

fjt TxpiiivmUg, Lacrp. J. part ii. art. fi. pi. xiii. fig, 2.

Lmerrla wnmlor, Linn

Monilorv lizaitt, Shaw, .... , . . .. j .. .■..:.

2. T. eJrf am*. Elegant T. Drowniah with white

prmcenfri' 1irii-4 :^^,ve the liead and neck, nine tran*-

vme bitrc! I wlijtr tpoi^ upon the hack i the

belly «->'''' rrruptcd tmavcrae biown tinea;

Lr I .;.ud. ill p.S6.

S. IU- Cepedian T. Browni«h above, with

. ill i* '.ran^vetae rowaef apoU; .white on the

VOL. II. r«BT I.

Repiile

Indicus.

MaculaCUb

Gruetu.

fore part of the body, and black on the hintlor ; whitish
below, with interrupted trantver^ brown lines.
Le T. cejtedian, Uaud. iii. p. 43. pi. xxix.

4. T. iiuUau. Indian T. Black above, with con-
fuaedly scattered white dots.

Le T. iudien, Daud. iii. p. 46'. pi. xxx.

5. T. maculalut. SputtL-d T. lilack above, irregu-
larly marked with transverse bands, and seven longi-
tudinal rows of greenish spots on the upper ]>art;
Deck p)ailc<l below ; tail half the length of the body,

Le T. a lachet verteg, Daud, iii. p. 48,

6. 7'. gritetit. CJray T. ^'eilowiah-gray without
epols, paliT below ; »calrs nearly hexagonal, granuUte<l
«t) their margin ; tail nearly cy lindrioili and as long as
tbe body.

Le T. grit iTEgypte, Daud. viii. p. S5Z
Sect. II. Tmiumie* kavhig Ike Tail turmmmUd^mith
a rmaU double Crttt, 'Ugktltf serrated.

7. T. ilellalms. Stellated T. BUdtish-brown above,
with transverse bends of small whitish drcular spots,
intcnperaed with whitish dots ; tail long,

Lt 7*. etoili iAJrimu, Daud. iii. p. .ta pi. xxxi,

8. T. milMicut. T, of the Nile, Differs from the
former in having the accllated spots and dots irregu-
larly diapoaed. Probably a variety. See Daud. viii.
p. 95S.

9. T. hengalennt. Ikngal T. Ash-coloured above,
spatted with white and bkck ; black bands across the
cheeka ; throat dotted with Uaick ; whitish below ; tail

Le T. p»f«e/^ dr lUngale, Daud. iii, p. 67.

10. 7, omtUmt. Ornamented T, Body black ; throat
white, radkted with nine transverse black bandx ; with
seven trantvcne ro\«s of round while spots upon the
back ; and flrom t -en whitish rings round
the tail. See PI : 1 ig,6.

Ijt T. ome, Daud. vni. p. 307. Amt. de Afiu. de
Hitl. ffntmr. tom. ii. p. '.^40. pi. xlviii.

11. T. alhigularit. Whhe-throated T. Lower part
and sides of the head and neck whitish, spotted with
brown ; two whitish lines extending from the eyes to the
neck ; tail long.

Le T.a gt>rge blanche, Daud. iii. p. 72. pi. xxxii.

M. T. rarif'alm. Variegated T, Blackiah above,
variegated with double transverae rows of round yel-
low lines and sbades ; tail twice aa long aa the body,

Le T, Ugarri, Daud. iii. p. 76.

FerMretadirwrd.Whitr, Fnyerr/o N.S. ;f'(i&«,p.S53,

13. T. tMmmlktwmtiemt. Pimp^ T. Black-coloured,
with roundish white spota irregularlv disponed ; belly
marketl with brown bands ; two black lines behind the
eyes ; head scaly above ; tail of moderate len^.

Le T. rxanlhrmaliqme de Senegal, Daud. iii. p. 80.

\^. T. laceHinui. Liaard T. Some carinatetl scales !'««»><"".
along the back ; eight longitudinal rows of smooth pUtes
below the belly ; tail long, with a small double crest at
its liase,

I^ T. liztiniH, Daud. iii. p, 85,

Ije SiloHnr, l.ac*pedc, i. part ii, art 1 1 .

LaccTia bicarinata, Linn, a Graelin, p. 1060.

Genus V. Iglana. GUANAS.

Tbe imlividnals of this tribe resemble those of the lotrAVA
last, in having the body and tail surrounded with nu- Oeniu.
meroos small rings of mmuta scales that are nearly of a
aqoare fignre, and in sometimes having the toil a little >

oompreased at the tides, though this is in a >r - " -'--
gree. A hi^ crest comnos^ of numerous
scales, reaeinbliDg the teetn of a comb, extends mun^
o

StcUatu;,

Nilotiau,

BengslMw.

OinttiUi

Plate
CCXCVI,
Fig. 6.

AJbigoUril.

Vuiegtiui.

Exsotlit.
maliciu.

HEUPETOLOG V.

Rrpnlc*.

DrlicatitM'

FtATB

CCXCVI.
Jig. T.

Coniuu.

CarolOi

Cominoo
luana.

I)*AC0

ticotu.

f6

the rxrlebro! from the neck to near the tip of the tail.
The head is somewhat pyramidal, and has four sides ;
the tongue is broad, flat, fleshy, but little extensile, and
a little notched at its tip ; and below the throat is a
pendulous inflated skin, compressed laterally, and fur-
nishcd at iu fore jiart with a crest resembling that on
the back and Uil. The feet are strong, each having
five toes ending in claws, and under each thigh is a row
of small porous tubercles. The Guanas are found both
in the E. and VV. Indies; and chiefly inhabit the woods,
sporting among the trees. There are three species, viz.

Sptcies 1. Iguana deUcalissima. Common guana.
Swelling of the throat pectinated anteriorly ; dorsal and
caudid crest pectinated ; forehead and muzzle covered
with smooth plates. Plate CCXC\^I. Fig. 7.

J.'Ifuane ordinaire, Daud. iii. 263. pi xL

L'iguane, Lacepcde, vol i part ii. art 12.

Lacrrla iguana, Linn, a Gmelin. p. 1062.

Common ^uana, Shaw, iii. pi. Ixi.

2. /. coriuUa. Horned G. Swelling of the throat
anteriorly pectinated ; forehead beset with tubercles,
especially one resembling a horn.

L'Iguane cornu, Dau<l. iii. 282. _

Le lezard cornu, Lacepede, vol. i. part ii. art. 13.

3. J.ccerulea. Blue G. Bluish-black, without spots ;
a longitudinal row of pointed scales on each side of the
neck.

L'lguaite arioise, Daud. iii. p. 286.
Species 1. Iguana delicaiissima. Common guana.
Tnis animal, afker the croco<lile and the dragon, is
one of the largest of the Saurian order, being not un-
frequently found from four to six feet long from the
muzzle to the tip of the tail. In its general appear-
ance, exclusive of its colours, it is clumsy and unsight-
ly, and occasionally even assumes a terrific aspect. Its
head is large and thick ; its belly protuberant ; its tail
very long, thick at its commencement, and tapering
gradually towards a sharp point, its serrated back, tail,
and throat, its long toes armed with sharp crooked
claws, and its jaws with numerous sharp teeth, are suf-
ficient to alarm an observer who is unacquainted with
its history. To counterbalance these deformities, how-
ever, its whole surface is covered with numerous shin-
ing scales, of the most brilliant appearance, reflecting
various colours when viewed iu the sunshine, though
the prevailing tint is a brownish green.

The guana is found both in South America and the
West Indies, where it inhabits the forests, especially
near the borders of lakes or the banks of rivers. It
sometimes ascends the highest trees in quest of insects ;
at others, seeks its prey among the grass and under-
wood. It is a harmless, inoffensive animal, and soon
becomes familiar with mankind. Its flesh forms a de-
licious article of food, and is either roasted fresh, or
salted and barrelled up for exportation, by the inhabi-
tants of those islands where it is most frequent. It is
aaid that tlie negroes are very expert in catching this
animal, arousing it bv whistling, and, when it suffers
them to approach, tickling it with the end of a rod,
having attached to it a cord with a running noose, which
they gradually slip over the head of the animal, and
thus secure their prey.

Genus VI. Draco. FLYING DRAGONS.
The extraordinary reptiles comprehended under this
name differ from all the other oviparous quadrupeds, in
having a membranous expansion resembling a wing,
supported by bony rays, and capable of being folded
«nd uni'olded^ extending from the flanks along each side

SHUrian
Beptile;!.

Spccie>»

of the body to the shoulders. In other respects they
resemble the guanas, having, like them, a crest along
the back and part of the tail, and an inflated membrane
below the throat. Their tail is, however, proportion-
ally longer, smaller, and more cylindrical, and their
limbs more delicately formed. Naturalists of the pre-
sent day reckon three species, which Daudin has dis-
tinguished by the following names and characters.

Species 1. Draco linealus. Radiated flying dragon. Lineatut
Body beautifully variegated with blue and grey above ;
wings brown, longitudinally streaked with white.

Le iragonraye, Daud. iii p. 298.

2. D viridis. Green flying D. Body green, rather Viridis.
scaly; wings grey, transversely marked with four brown
bands and connected with the thighs. See Plate ^,l^^IL.
CCXCVI. Fig. 8. Vtr

Le D. verd. Daud. iii. p. 301. pi. xli.
Draco volaiis, Linn, a Gmel. p. 10.56".
Le Driigon, Lacepede, vol. ii. part ii. art. S3.

3. D.piscus. Brown dragon. Body brown, paler Fuscus,
beneath, scarcely scaly ; wings brown.

Le D. brun, Daud. iii. p. 307.

These animals so far resemble each other in habits,
manners, and habitation, that it is unnecessary to de-
scribe each species. They are usually of small size,
seldom exceeding eight inches in length.

From this small size, and the membranous wings
with which they are furnished, they readily support
themselves for some time in the air, though their flight
seldom extends beyond thirty paces, darting from tree
to tree in the manner of the flying squirrels ; ani-
mals which they much resemble, as well in their mo-
tions as in their manner of life. They are supported
chiefly by insects, which they sometimes take while
on their flight. Flying dragons are found in Asia, Afri-
ca, and America, especially in the island of Java.

We need scarcely remark, that the fantastic animals
described by the older writers of natural history, under
the name of dragons, are mere creatures of the imagi-
nation ; though it may be proper to observe, that spe-
cimens are not unfrequently met with, in cabinets of
animals, that nearly resemble the figures given by those
writers. It is now known that these specimens are arti-
ficial, and are formed by designing people, who make a
trade of selling natural curiosities, by dressing up small
ray fish, so as to resemble the fabulous dragons.

Genus VII. Agama. AGAMAS.

The species now ranked under this name had gene- Agam^
rally been regarded as guanas, or stellios, from which Genus.
Daudin distinguishes them by the following characters.
Body oblong, more or less thick, entirely covered with
small rhomboidal scales, that are almost always carina-
ted and reticulated together ; tail in most instances cy-
lindrical, but in a few compressed ; tliroat capable of
being inflated ; tongue short, thick, a little cleft at its
tip ; head thick, callous, generally set with spines at
the back part, and covered with numerous small rhom-
boidal scides ; feet long and thin, having each five slen-
der toes furnished with claws. There are twenty-five Speciei.
species, arranged under five Sections.

Sect. I. Agamas having a compressed Tail.

Species 1. Agama superciliosa. Supercilious Agama. SupercUio-
Body of a pitchy black ; back and tail crested above ; »»•
occiput callous and spinous ; scales of the body rhom.-
bold and carinated.

L' Aflame sourcilleux, Daud. iii. p. 336.

Laeerta superciliosa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1063.

HERPETOLOGY.

ptftii. art. 7.

Airu

FnagtiSmrd, Shaw.

2. A. tcniala. Fork-hnded A. T«l « little rmtv.
prp«i«l. of the length of the body ; » fermtnl crest on
the back ami tail ; occiput odlooa and two ibrked.

I.'A. ocdptUjbmrcim. Daud. iii. p. S45.
I^crria toOaia, Linn, a GroeL p. lOGS.
Shielded lixjtrd, Shaw.
L* lett/otircAiie. Laoepede, toL L put iL art. 8.

3. .4. alra. Black A. Occiput very rpinout ; body
of a blackish fqualid broirn above, with a lonpitu.linil
veil.... I, •=,ndal«^»h«h«i; beUy and throat blu.
I 'ttle cwBprwwtL

i. .i;aMr Htmirt, UamL Hi. p. S49,

^ /LfatcuUm. Banded A. Tail onsofaMd, thrice
aa kNur aa the body i coloar bine, pakr Ulow, with pal*
■MCs on tiia atck, and four transverw pal* Mne band^ oC
which tha Mond is the ahorteat. on the ba^

LA. i bmrnda de tlmde, Daud iii. p^ SA&

Skctiox II. Aj:amtu properly to ealleJ,
Body aleiMlcr, wicboM tabetdaa ; tail cylindricaL

27

PlAT«

€CXCVI1.

'n:bn.

Cadabia.

UurKan,

rWrigBb.

*• •^* «fa«>n<«. Cii— HI AgMBa. Tail Ion* ; up-
p« part of the neck and back part of the Ixwl .pi-
Mo^ with the lodea of the oeefpot reretwd ; a nnall
do«aaI paciiaatad amm. ; rnlai « pale gracxtiah blue.

L'A.iu€almu, Oaad. wL p. SM.

Laetrtm ^mmm. Linn. • OmeL p. I0G4>,

L'Amamt, tmetA. L part li. art IT.

t.A.ealatu. Galcol A. Blue ; tail Ion* ; lore part
flf the back and back ^r, »r.t,. i.,.,i r.,niiahcd with a
■aatlcrat Sac PU; %

l^M. ftltott, Ilanrl. .... |,. .,..,, im. juiii.

If^UtakUt^ Uan. a Gnalin, p. 106d^

Gakoi lusrd, Sbtw.

L'A. «*/«Mr, laarpaiU. L part ii. ait. Id.

7 J. mmhrm. Clondcd A. Tail lonK ; oonpnt caU
fern and apinooj ; back five atfeakcd ; a black apat oa
the throat

LA. mmirr. Daud. iii. p^ SfJS.

Ijtceria tnmfira. Linn, a Gnwl. n. I0t>4.

CJoHdtd inard, Shaw.

LL'mhrtf Lacepada, ii. part ii. art SO.

8. A. imdmtau. Uodulatnl A. Aah brown ab«>Te,
wnpilarlv OMrkcd with tninavetaa baaib or wave*;
blai'h brlow, with a \in^ whiliah doaa.

L'A. oitdmlr, l)«u<l. iu p. fis*.

9. A. mm/fuUia. Angled A. Hea<l wrinkled abo»e,
.*^°?*.'**'^ : «l« of the back ilioaiboidal and

CMaatad, Ikaaa of the belly nuoalk ; two IwRe roaml
Ndn bakm tha thm • g ,ad heiatonal.

Lmeertm mfdiuM, Lion, a OmcL 1061.

JmtakUdJumrd. Sham.

L'Uttmgom*, Laccpade, i. part ii. art 22.

10. A.mmfic^a. Mnricated A. Body lonfptadinal.
ly atreakrd with pointed carinatad tcalca ; tail atriatcd,
hamd, twice aa Jang aa the body ; occiput calloua and
•phtowL

LA.kiruUdela NtmttlU HolUmdr, Daud. uL p. 391.
Mmncmlfd Ihard. White'i romoge to Ntvf SomlA

11. A. virmeokr. HariM)ain A. Back marked on
J . , *?H* * '«V»«*»«M«1 wkit* line ; body of a
dear blue, with trantverae brown taada unon tha back ■
tail twice a* king m the body.

L'A ArUifuimi, T)«u.l iii. p. 395^ pl,ty ,1;,.
^.\^ ^^.fia'ifP'laru. Ycllow-throatad A. Grev, red-
dub abova^ Vtth a yellow throat ; laU once and a half aa

S •

long as the body, a abort longitudinal white line upon s»uria*
each flank. i<e|itilc*.

L'A. a gorge tajramie, Daud. iii. p. .S98. ^— 'Y-»'

13. A. rotacaiida. Ilose-tai)e<] A. Grey, pale below; BosKiud*.
tail of a rose colour, 1 ^ the Icn^rth of the body.

L'A. rote-queue, Daud. iii. p. 400.

14. ^. atpera. Itough A. Head smooth and red- A«per».
di«h above; body and Uil l>eset with |M>inted scales,
marbled with transverse shades of redtliaii-brown and
white.

L' A. rude, Daud. iii. p. 40?.

15. A. Hellarit. Starred A. Body and tail furnish- SteU«ri«.
ed above with a tootlied crest, with numerous white
•tarry pointa on the hack and on each side.

L'A. etoUe, I>aud. iii. p. 40^.

Skction III. Orbicular Agamtt or Tapayt.

Body a little deprcased. and beset here and there with
mall rounded or pointed tuberdask

J6 a. orUeularit. OrbicuUr A. Body orbicular Orbicului*.
and rough, i^mqntcd above with brown; head like
that of a toad; feet yellow below; tail of moderate
len^h.

L'A. orlicutaire, Daud. iii. p. 406. plate xlv. fig. 1.

Lactrta orbicutarit, Linn, a GmeL p. IO61.

tx Tapay, LaceMde, toL ii. part li. art 37.

Orhieuiar Ihard, Shaw.

17. A. GemmalM. Gemmed A. Body marked with Canmsu.
■U longitudinal rowa of four-sided pointed scales, with
brownish trmnarerse angular bands upon the back.

L'.i. a pierrtriu, Daud. iii. p. 410.

18. A. plica. Plated A. Tail long ; occiput callous, PUia.
palpebrw excoriated above ; neck tuberculated at the
«deih and plate<l below.

L'A.pltue, Dauil. iii. p. 412.
lyicrrta flLra, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1074.
Le pitted , I.4icepede, ii. part ii. art. SI.

u!^ "l /^"V"*^**- '••«^tu«y A. Tongue round and ^.^tmim.
thick ; head obtow ; a longitudinal brown band upon ««.
the back, with a triangular brown spot on each side of
the Uil.

L'A. du Paraguay, Daud. iii. p. 414.

«0. A. A«&MM/)a. .Stiirgr<zhiK A. Tail imbricated, HdisKopa.
thick at the base, and sharp at the tip ; head thick and
callous, spinous at the back part; neck contracted,
nurkrd with a transverac fold balow ; tail sttrlet be-
low.

L'A. Mmseopa, Daud. iii. p. 419.

Laceria Meluueopa, Linn, a Gmel. p. I074.

Zl. A. uralentU. Uralian A. Head roundish, neck Orslemis.
plated below ; back of a livid aah-colour, wrinkled, and
a little rough ; tail the length of the body, black at the
tip, and aix-bandcd.

L'A. rnkUeua di toural, Daud. iii p. 48«.

Laceria uralmtii, Linn, n Cmel. p. I07.I.

9i. A. guttata. Dotted A. Head roundish; body cuuata,
(mood), blue above, with round white dots; belly
whitish ; tail longer than the body, black at its tip,
with four Mack opposite spots towards its base.

L'A. a goatltkUet, Daud. iii. p. 496.

Lacerta guttata, Linn, a Gmer p. 1078.

S3. .4. aurita. Eared A. Anj^lea of the mouth di- Auriu.
lated on each side into a semi-orbicular dentatcd crest

L'A. a oretUer, Daud. iiL p. 429. pUte xlv. fig. 2.

Lacerta aurita, Linn, a GmeL p. 1U73.
Sect. IV. iJzard Agamat.

Platca on the head, and a row of granUar pores un-
der each thigh.

14. A. marmorula. Marbiad A. Throat inflated ; Mannsiaui.

HER FETOLOGY.

nqnilo-

PicbcBnlU.

Stsli.io
Gcntn.

t'otdyliu.

Viilgiris.

Qiwtx-
palea

28

head coverwl with numerous plates, colour brownish-
bay, with transverse dark bands *nd green siiades ;
tail very Ion?.

L'A. tnarbri de Surinam, Daud. iii. p. 433.

iMcrrla marmorata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 106'j.

Miirhled lizard, Shnw.

Le tnarbrS, Lacepcde, ii. part ii. art. .TO. plate ii.

Sect. V. Agamas tvilh pre/ienslle Tails.

25. A. prehemilis. Prehensile A. Four transverse
black bands on each flank ; belly brown, with black and
white shades ; three black bands upon the cheeks ; tail
prehensile, scarcely longer than the body.

L'A. a queue prenaulc, Daud. iii. p. 440.

Genus VIII. Stellio. STELLIOS.

Body oblong, thick, entirely covered with small scales,
regularly disposed transversely ; tongue thick, short,
and a little cleft at the tip ; head broad, rather short,
covered above with numerous scales or plates ; throat
capable of slight inflation ; tail compressed, surround-
ed with transverse rows of large carinated pointed
scales ; feet strong, furnished each with five separate
toes, tipt with claws.

This singular tribe of reptiles, which, in the form of
their bodies and the tubercles with which they are of-
ten covered, bear some resemblance to the toads, are
found only in the hottest parts of Africa and America.
They hide themselves during the day below stones, and
in the crevices of old buildings, and leave these retreats
at the approach of night. They prefer dry situations,
and live chiefly on insects.

Daudin has characterise<l nine species, which he ar-
ranges under three Sections, as follows.
Sect. I. Cordyli.

Plates upon the head, body, and tail versicillated and
ipinous.

Species 1. Stellio cordylus. Cordyle S. Headplatetl
above, body and tail covered witfc pointed carinated
scales, disposed in whirls.

Le Slellion Cordi/le, Daud. iv. p. 8.

Lacerta Cordylus, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1060.

Le Cordyle, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 21.
Sect. 1 1. True Slcllios.

Head covered above with small scales, with some
scattered transverse bands of large scales upon the
body.

2. S. Vulgaris. Common S. Body covered with
small scales, with a few transverse bands of larger scales
upon the back ; scales of the tail a little elongated.

Le S. proprement dil, Daud. iv. p. 16.
Lacerta stellio, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1060.
Le stellinn, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 33.
liough lizard, Shaw.

3. S. Plalurus. Broad tailed S. Tail flat, broadest
in the middle, spinous at its edges ; occiput and back tu-
berculated and spinous; muzzle slender ; colour brown-
ish-grey.

Le Sfa queue jAaledB la Notiv. Hollande, Daud. iv. p. 24.
Broad tailed Uzard. White's Voy. to N. S. Wales, p. 246.
Sect. III. Bastard Stellias.

Numerous very smaU scales on the upper part of the
head and body. '^'^ *

4. S. quelz-palco. Quetz-paleo S. Pale grey ; body
.little s<»lyand granulated ;. tail the length of the
body, with elongated scales, each thigh furnished be-
Jow with a row of hrteen pores.

Le S, quelz-paleo. Daud. iv, p. 2ft

Brcviciuda>
Plate
CCXCVII,
Kig. lO.

Pelluma.

5. S. spinipes. Spinefooted S. Bo<ly of a bright S.mtisn
green, covered with minute scales, spinous at the sides ; Reptiles.
upper part of the feet covered with round sharp scales ; *—,'—'
pores below the tiiighs ; tail a little elongated. Spinipes.

Le S. spiiiipcde, Daud. iv. p. 31.

6. S. azureus. Azure S. Body of a light azure Azureus.
colour, without spots and slender ; tail elongated, and
surrounded with 35 or 36 spinous whirls.

Le S. azure de I'Ainerique meridionale, Daud. iv. p.
36. pi. xlvi.

7. S. brevicauda. Short tailed S. Colour light blue,
with ti-ansverse bands of a darker blue, and a star-like
spot upon the fore-head ; tail a little depressed and short.

Le S. courts queue, Daud. iv. p. 40. pi. xlvii.

8. S. pelluma. Pelluma S. Upper part of the body
variegated with green, yellow, blue and black ; lower
part with green and yellow ; tail the length of the body.

Le S. pelluma du Chili, Daud. iv. p. 46.
Lacerta pelluma, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1060.
Pelluma lizard. Shaw.

9. 6'. niger. Black S. Colour black, with a double Niger,
broad white spot on each side of the neck.

Le S. negre, Daud. iv. p. 48.

Genus IX. Chameleo. CHAMELEONS.

The head short and pretty thick, covered on its sur- Chame-
face with smooth five-sided or six-sided scales ; nose i-eo Uenas.
generally obtuse ; eyes covered with a granular mem-
brane, perforated in the middle ; tongue long and cy-
lindrical, terminating in a glutinous tubercle, and very
extensile ; tympanum of the ear very apparent ; throat
capable of inflation into a compressed pouch ; body
elongated, compressed, capable of considerable inflation,
covered with small scaly tubercles, irregularly disposed
at a distance from each other ; back sharp, and often
furnished with a crest formed by small prominent or
pointed scales ; tail at least as long as the body, cover-
ed with a granular scaly skin, capable of being rolled
in a spiral form round an object ; feet furnished each
with five toes, terminating in claws, and united two to-
gether and three together.

Species 1. Chameleo vulgaris. Common chameleon. Vulgaris,
brownish-grey, with a spiny crest upon the back and
throat ; occiput pyramidal, four-sided, with prominent Pt.ate
tubercles under the skin of the back. See Plate ccxcviI.
CCXCVn.Fig.il. Fig. 11.

Le Camcleon ordinaire, Daud. iv. p. 181.

Lacerta chamxleon. Linn, a Gmel. p. IO69. See
Shaw's Gen. Zool. iii. pi. Ixxvi.

Le Camcleon, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 26.

2. C. Setiegalensis. Senegal C. Yellowish ash co- Senegalen-
lour, shaded above with blackish ; an acute slender sis.
crest upon the back, and a serrated crest upon the

belly ; occiput furnished with a triangular eminence.

Le C. d ventre denletee en scie du Senegal, Daud. iv.
p. 203.

3. C. pumilus. Dwarf C. Light blue, with two Pumilus.
yellowish longitudinal lines on each side of the body ;
throat fringed below.

Le C. nain du Cap de bonne Esperance, Daud. iv. p.
212. pi. liii.

Lacerta pumila. Linn, a Gmel. p. 1069.

4. C. bifidus. Two-forked C. Fore part of the Bjfiju,.
muzzle prominent and two forked, with each division

long and compressed.

Le C. nezjourchu de I' inde, Daud. iv, p. 217. pi. liv.
See Phil. Trans, vol. Iviii.

The chameleons use remarkable both for peculiarity of
structure and singularity of manners ; and the first and

HRRPBTOLOGY.

i^

Bqxika.

»

Gccstt

bett known fpedet haa lonf been celebrated, both in
ancient and- modeni timc^ Cat the varieto of colours
which it a«anie* on difiiBrcat oocMians. Their »kiti is
rrnurluibly thin and delicate, and i* w looae and diU<
table, cMMviafly aboot the beRj, aa to admit of consi.
iknMa mflation when the anhnah expand their ample
langi hf a long and deep intpiration. Their eyes are
renuikable, both for the membrane tfwt coven them,
and lor Ae cue with which they are directed at the
Mune time towanb different obiecta. The peculiar itruc-
ture of their feet, and then- prrfieiwile laiU, •erre to give
them a iorer bold of the Branches of trees in which
they generally Ktc, and tfao* secure them against the
attack* of serpents, by whoo) they are eaf^iy sought
after, while their long txtnMOe and giutinons tongue
enables them more easily to caCeh the insecU which
form their natwal food. From the smallnesa of these
imects, and the Iom abadncnce which the chameleons
tn able to MitdB. it wm kng believed that diese ani-
mals lived upottatr: • volflw emr, which haa given
birth to many a pratty upteision among oar poets.
It has also ben snppoMd, that chameleons asiuroe the
oaloiirofsnyaMccttm which they an laid. This is so
tnir, that if the object he graen of ai^ shade, aa
■of thee'

gretn is the prevaiUng eofeov o^the chaiwelew*, and
rt passes through vaneoa Aedn of this colour when
I or angry, hm^ry or satiated, it acquiras. in the
' of the cxpefinent, ■ thnde very near that of the
or doth en wUch it is laid, h never bceemea
aidle bine or qaitc white, thoHgh it oAn verges upon
■MM eolaafa ; asid aometimcs the shade of green is so
dH«(. tiMt ■ hasty observer ari^ call it black.

Attampti have been mifc t* aecount (or the changes
of calonr in the rhamelian, by tfie remark, tbat the
bUMd oTtiris nfaMl is oT a violet bhir. while *a nelu.
fa) eolovef thtsUaisyeBewt hence, whan the skiD
ia mcMt tinnipewnl. and the animal in yi^mtt rigaar,
ia darfcsst, or aaaMBOi moat ef the
when the »kin i* least stietthed, and
the dnaaletidB languid, the colour becca>w paler, aai
towvda yellow-white^ or even brown.

* ckfadhr in the tropical cUmatcs
of th« old continent, ei|iecialty m E|nrpt and other
parts of Anicn, They are generally or dinumitive siw,
the iatgasi not eiceecmn two fret, flvm the mode to
the tip of die tcB; nf irhifh thf rail iiirM|iiei nwt half

Gam X. OccAo. GECKOS.

The animals of this tribe ara not so anatf(hily in their
cxtvnal #i«H«Hn as the* am ii^gaMhif m t«ir
I iuid whi '

nan, and toe noaiouB iuid which they secrete. Their
head is Prcttjr thick, especially at the articulation of the
JBwa, wncic tt is bocdered with smsll plates, while the
•adhce tif the head i* covered with small rounded pro>
aihwiit scales ; the ronule is taper ; the tongue thick,
flat, tlightly cleft at Hs tip, and glotinoas^ but itet ez«
tmsile ; the eyce restmbh. these ef the chamehoas, bat
Ae extctnal opening ef the care b Icm apparent, and
the threat is susceptible of slight tnAation. The bodv
la knf and tfnn, a little drprrved, and covered with
smdl praniaent scales ; the Uil is generally cy>

tical, b«t in a ftw spaciea iallened; the fbet have
five broad toes, flancnad along thnr marfiaa, co-

d on their infilrier sarlhcc wwi smdl trauivcise

hahricated scales, oooeeaKng Klandahr porvs, fWm

tsMch eiudeia ffiy ecert^ire flnicL Each toe n tip>

pad vtfl a maO crooked daw.

Thagtchw tn kmti in Soath Ametics, in AiKca,

Hndrical,!

and Uie East Indies. They live about walls and in dkurian
trees, feed chiefly on insect), ami have so little dreail of ltq"^«- ^
mankimi, as familiarly to enter their houses. """i"^^

There are 15 species, arranged under three Sections.

Sbction I. Geckos.

Geckos, properly so calle<l, having the five toes dis-
tinct, or a little palmated at their base, the tail cylindri-
cal, and the body smooth.

Species I . Gecko ^gypliaeut. Egyptian or common £gyptiaeu;.
gecka Light ash-grey ; tail for the most part hnving
six bmad rings at its base; body rather swollen, and a Plate
little flatu-ncd. See IMate CCXCVII. Fig. 12. ccxcvii.

I^ Gecko ordinatre, Daud. iv. p. 107, Fig. 1*.

Laeerta gteko, I. inn. a Cimel. p. 1068.

Cow'MM geeio lizard, Shaw.

Le Gecko, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art 48.

A very curious structure has lately been tletected in
the foot ef this animal hy Sir Everard Home, Bart.
Sir Joseph Banks hail often observed at Batavia, that
the GecKo comes out in the evening from the roofs of
the hou.<e«, and walks down the smouih hard {>o'.i«lie<l
chanam walb in search of flies; and it oc-i-urrnl to
Sir Everard Home, that this must be dont i-.ri-

vaoce like that of the Eckineit remom, or - „ :i.ih.

Having precared from Sir Joseph a large s|)ecimen, pt^Ta
weighing 5| oa. he was euableil to ascertain lite |)ecu- i CXCV.
liar medtanism by which the ftct of the animal can ^"^ IS, !'•
keep hold of a smooth surface. The Gecko has five
toes, and at the end ef eech, except tiie thumb, is a

very sharp carved daw. (>■• •» Irr surface of each

toe are Id transverse dits I > as many cavities,

or pockets, whoee depth is lu in v n|iial to the length
of the slit which forms the orifice .- they all open for.
wards, and the extcrnd edge of each opening is serra-
led like a small- toothed oomh. The cavities, poekeu,
and serrated cdgea an cwvered with a cntide. A large
ovd BMrnda awvaa the daw of each toe, and fttrni the
twalniw of these large musdas, two sets of smaller
■wdaa originate, one pair of which i* lust upon the pos-
terior suriaoe of rach of the cavities that lie immediately
over them. The large mnades draw down the claws,
and necaaaarily stretdi the small muscles. When the
■mall maades contract, they open the orifices of the
cavities, and torn down their serrated edge u^xm the
sur&ce on which the animal stands By this means
vanu ara Amnad, and the aMmd adhere* to the surfiux
by the pnwaiii of the atmosphere. See Phif. Tram.
IfUJ. n. l49Lamipage»l,col. 8. of this article.

«. O. Unit. SniaoCh G. Ash grey, all the scdes Ijnu.
vanr minute, inside of the thighs not porous ; tail of
moderate length, simple at the base; tips of the toes
triangular.

Le G. line tTAwtM^me, Daud. iv. p. 11?.

S. G. tpiniamda. Spine-tailed tJ. Bo<ly smooth ; Spinicsuda.
uil nearly the same length as the body, thick, and ring.
cd at the base : rin|^ b«Mt with spines on each side.

L* G. a qunu cputetue, Daud. iv. p. \13.

4. G. gwUatms. Dotted G. Pale reil above, with Cutunis.
small round whitish s|iots disposed in rows ; nu'roerous
sqaara scales uprm the tail.

LeG.a pouUeteiitt blanchet, Daud. iv. p. 122. p|. xlix.

5. G. .Surinametui*. Surhiam G. Tail as long as snriaamtn
the boily with brown bencb, a yellowish band border. '„.

ed with lirown running (han the e^eo to the thighs ;
back marbled with little brown spots.

LeG.de Surinam, Daud. iv. p 126.

a. G. itorjAtfreut. Porphyry G. Pale red-brownish Porptirrtus.
above, with numeroiu naidl round spots of a paler hue.

30

^ualidiu.

Vitunw.

'Riipuetula.

F*«cacu]s-

•Tiicdms.

Tuberctilo.
tuf.

FimbiMtut.

CritUtus.

fammlm.

Le C. poruhyri, D«u(l iv. p. ISO.

T. G. tqualidut. Squalid G. Tail short ; toes cari-
nate<l abovf, lamelktcd below ; scales very minute, un-
equal, and (lotted.

1a G clingtinc, Daud. ir. p. 134.

8. G. rillnlMs. Banded O. Reddish, with a longi-
tudinal white band running from the occiput, where it
is forked, along the back ; tail long, marked with white
bands.

U G. a bandeblanche de tJnde, Daud. iv. p. 136.
pUte 1.

Ijurrln villain, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1067.

Forkrd liznrd, .Shaw.

p. G. rttt'icnuda. Tiimip-tailed G. Dirty brown,
with a whilish band, bordered with brown, behind the
eyes ; tail short, thick, and turbinated at the base, con-
stricteil at the anus, pointed at the tip.

Le G. a queue turbinfie, Daud. iv. p. 141. plate li.

I^certa raptcanda, Linn, a Gmel. p. 106'8.

Tumip-lailed lizard, Shaw.

Sect. IL Geckols.

Tail cylindrical ; body covere<l with pointed scales.

10. G. fnsciciilnrix. Common geckot. Twelve lon-
gitudinal rows of acute fasciculated scales on the body ;
tail short, with two broad rings at. its base.

Le G.fasciatlnire, Daud. iv. p Ht.
jMarin mnurilanica, Linn, a Gmel. p. IfiO.
Moorixh liznrd, Shaw.
Le Grckoite, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 49.

11. G.lrirdrm. Triangular G. Body covered alwve
with eighteen longitu<Unal rows of triangular jiointed
scales ; lower part of the tail covered with small trans-
verse plates.

Le G. a ecailles triedres, Daud. iv. p. 155.

1'2. G. tubercnlosiis. Tuberculated G. Brownish,
covered above with scattered, sharp, tuberculated scales,
with brown spots upon the back, disposed in pairs.

1^ G. tuberculrux, Daud. iv. p. 158.

Sect. II L Flat-tailed Geckols.

13. G.fimbrialm. Fimbriated G. Head, body, and
legs flattened at the sides, and bordered with a mem-
branous fringe ; tail broad and compressed, with a
•imple membrane on each side.

Le G. a letcplale, Daud. iv. p. l60. pi. lii.
La tele plale. Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 50.

14. G. crislatii.t. Cre.«tetl G. Tail furnished with
a pinnatifid membranous crest ; feet palmated.

Le G a queue crelee, Daud. iv. p 167.
Lacerta caudiveibera, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1058.
Flat-tailed lizard, Shaw.
hr. fimelte-queue, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 4.

15. G. tarroubea. Sarroube G. Yellow, spotted
with green ; four feet four-toed.

I^ G. sarroube de Madagascar, Daud. iv. p. I76.
La talamandre sarroube, Lacep. ii. part ii, art. 58.

Gencs XI. Angus. ANGLES.

The animals of this genus are nearly allied to those
of tlie last, in the form of their bodies and the struc-
ture of their feet, except that, in the latter, only the
first joint of the toes are scaly below. The body is co-
vered wilh fine granular scales; the tongue is not cleft,
anil is attached to the floor of the mouth ; the tail is
cylindrical in some species, and compressed in others.

The anoles are inhal>itants of America, where they
live ill dry places much exposed to the sun. Daudin

HERPETOLOGY.

reckons eight species, arranged under two .Sections

Saurian
Reptiles.

Sect. I. Aneles having the Tail compressed, carinated, v.»-y->-^
and serrated. .Sjvjcics.

Species 1. Anolis bimaciilatus. Two-spotted A. Blu- Bimacula-
ish green, with a black spot upon each shoulder ; back tiis.
flattened and serrated. See Plate CCXCVII. Fig. 15. P'/J,":,

L' Anolis himacule, Daud. iv. p. 55. pf ^13

Lacerta bimaculata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1059- '^*

Le Bimacnie, Lacepede, i. part ii. art, 10.

Pennsyhanian lizard, Shaw.

2. A. carbonaritis. Charcoal coloured A. Deep black. Carbon*.
with shades of blue ; throat yellow ; toes broadest at '■''^'•
Uieir tips.

L'A. charbonnier, Daud. iv. p 64.

3. A. lineahis. Striped A. Body marked on each T.incattxs.
side with two longitudinal rows of oblong black linesr

!,pots.

L'A. rayi, Daud. iv. p. Gtf. pi. xlviii, fig. 1.

Sect. H. Anofes having a cylindrical Tail articulated,
but not carinnted.

4. A. bullaris. Red-throated A. Greenish or red- Bullaris.
dish, with a black .spot on the temple.

L'A. roquet, Daud. iv. p. 69.

Lacerta bullaris, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1075.

/yg roquet, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 40. pi. iv. fig. I.

5. A. punclatus. Dotted A, Blue above, with white punctaius.
dots, and a black longitudinal line upon the back ; sides

dotted with black.

L'A. a piiinls blancs de VAmerique mcridionale, Daud.
iv. p. 84. pi. xlviii. fig. 2.

Lncertn punctata, Linn, a (hnel. p. 107G.

Dotted lizard, Shaw, Gen. Zool. vol. iii.

6. A. podagricus. Gouty A. Greenish above, yel- pcdaoricus.
lowish below, with marginated nostrils, and tlie joints

of the toes flattened.

L'A. goutteux, Daud. iv. p. 87.

.7. A. auratus. Gilded A. A longitudinal white Auratus.
line edged with brown, running from the eyes along
each side of the body ; toes .slender.

L'A. dore, Daud. iv. p. 89.

8. A. spuMor. Spitting A. Tail round, and of mo- Spulator.
derate length, covered below with a longitudinal row
of plates ; toes truncated ; body ash colour, with trans-
verse white bands bordered with liver colour.

L'A. sputatcur, Daud. iv. p 99.

Lacerta spulator, Linn, a Gmel. p. IO76.

Spitting lizard, Shaw, Gen. Zool. vol. iii.

Genus XII. Lacert.\. LIZARDS.

In the numerous tribe of lizards, properly so called, Lacerta
the body is covered on its upper part with very .small ^<^""s.
hexagonal or rounried scales, disposed in numerous
transverse bands, and below with small smooth square
plates, disposed in longitudinal rows. The head re-
seml)les an oblong pyramid with four sides, covered
above and on the sides with smooth plates. The tongue
is forked, and capable of being thrust far out of the
mouth. The opening to the ear is oval or oblong, and
very apparent. The tail is at lea.st as long as the body,
quite cylindrical, composed of jointed rings, and has
no upper crest. All the feet are nearly of equal length,
and under each thigh there is a row of small, rough,
porous, scaly tubercles. Each foot has five toes, com-
pletely separate, thin, and terminated by small crook-
ed claws. Many of the species inhabit woody situa-
tions, and seek their food among tlie foliage, or in the

HERPETOLOGY.

31

Sanriaa

■(TllM.

VirMk

nndenrood. Thia Ibod eondils diiefly of insects.
Othen Krc about niinoa* bailding*, or rvm approach
the dwelling* oT mankind, aad feed partly on iniects.
ami partJjr on (hitts and vegetables A few have their
natural babhatien in nianhes, ponds, or lake*, and
prcT Dpaa tbe iniall animab which inhabit them.

The liaarda are in general lively and active, and, on
tbe whole, fom tbe moat pleasing of all the Saurian
trflica. Tbey are innocent in tbnr mamwra; cheerful
in their movements ; and many of tbem, tmn their
acreeable form and variety of coioor, coostitate very
pIcMing featofea in a gronp of natural objects.

Bloatof tbem are natives of tbe wanner climates; but
more of tbis tribe than oT any other of the .Saurian or-
der, are iwfigenooa in tbe temperate countries of Eu>
Thert wn aboot 39 iSMMa. wbidi Daudin dia-

rape; I
tribotca

SscT. L Jmnmt Liiardt.
Ko aealy collar oo tbe nadi ; tail entirely cylindrical

and verticiUalaii

6mc«m 1. Lme€rtm mwmm
hngnt binecalow, with hmr
vlutiab

Asaiva UsanL Of a
fwa of round
plaited

Lg kaanl aiwaa, Dand iiL p. 98.

VAmmm, Lawpada, eoL i. part iL art. SS.

Lmetrtm mmmm, Linn, a Gaaabn. pw 1070k

BkmMmnd, Shaw, Gn. &a^ toL iii.

i. L. liiitrmtm. Lcttatad L. BlaU
gated above with obleaff black apoti^
UaA bands, dotted with wbtte an cacb side; nech
fciwi'iiiily plailad befew.

L* L. mrdm trmitu maire$d»IUmmpir. Dand. iit. p. 1 06>

S. L. grtfUea. Grapbie L* Blniah>grMn marked
with blaA paiala and cnanw<ai% with a Itmgitudinal
CaidoaaMbaidaaf the- body, witboat white ey»-like
■pats ; naek tnmaiaiwlji plaitad below.

Li L. grmfkifm. Dmti. UL p. 1 IC

4. L. arriM. Arf(us L. Blue; back marked with
blaa cjres Juposcd in transverse rows, with a Ixngitu-
ifaHi Hid on each side of the body ; tail transversely

/^ L argut ^AwmifM. Dand. iii. n. 1 17.

5. L. gmUmrotm. SwollcB tbrootcd L. Sea-green,
tbnat and neck swollen ; red speU scattered over the
body, aapadally on eacb ssda.

Ct L. werd » pviMB r»mgt$, Dand. iii p 119.

6. L. eruikftxtpJkmlm. Rcd-haaded L. Back dark
giaea, with transvctaa wndniatad brown bands ; throat
wbita; bf«aatblacii;iidaanriMdwitb brawn bands;
belly stripad loM^idiB^y with black, bitten aad wbiiat

LtL.ilHt Tomgt, Daad. iii. y. 182.

Lm tele nmge, Lacepede, vol. 1. part ii. art. SO.

8bct. if. Grrtm Ijtzmrdt.
Green Iixanl«, having a scaly collar round the neck,
and • verticillatcJ tail

7. L. oceUal: Evcd I« Black abov<>, with lines
and eya-likc spoU of a light grten; light yellow below
witbout spots.

Le grand L terd ocelli dm midt de f Europe, Dand. iir.
p. 125 pi. sxtiii.

Le I„ terH. Laomda, L part ii art. 19. pi. xv. fig. I.

•. L. y^ridU. Oraan L. Bright green, marked
aboea with ver^ nwaeroos black or brown poinu ; light
yasn bdbw wttboot spots.

£• L. fifteti, ^Emrnpr, Dand. iii p. I i4. pi. xxxix.

9. L.j0wtiucentie. Jamaica L. Back reticulated with

pale brown, with yellow dots; a double longitudinal row Siurun
of ovate blue spot* along each side ; tail long. Hcpiiiri.^

I^ L. verd de la Jamaique, Daud. iii. p. 149. ~ ' ■

10. L. bilineata. Twcvliiied L. Back marked with Bilmeauu
two longitudinal white lines, ei%ed above with brown;

a loDgitudiiuil row of brown spots, and white points on
each side of the body, and a loug tail.

Le L. terd a deux rmiet, Daud. iii. p. 151. pi. xxxr.
fig. 1.

1 1. L ttirpium. Copse L. Bright green, spotted Siirpiuiu.
with black ; back and tail grev, with a brown inter*
rupted line along tbe back ; a double row of black eye-
like spou along eacb side, and a dotted belly.

Le L de utuckei, Daud. iii. p. 15.5. pi. xxiv. fig. 2.

1«. L viriduta. Greenish L. Bright green above; Viridul*
yellow below ; tail three times the length of the body,
and black at the tip, with an orange coloured spot on
tbe occiput and neck.

Le L. verdelet de Panama, Daud. iii. p. 165.

13. L. iUifnerta. Tiligurta L. Tail double the Tiligufrts^
length of the body ; belly marked with eighty plates.

Le L tiligurta, Dsud. iiL p 167-

Lacrrta liligueria, Linn, a Gmelin. p. 1070.

1^ Ldumetornm. Wood L. Bright green, with the num«#»
neck and belly ofa bright steel colour ; feet black, and ■>•■<>•
the collar of tna nadt serrated, and ofa violet colour.

Le L.d€S boiemut de Sitriuam, Daud. iii. p. 1 72.

Sect. IIL BMom Lixardt,

Having a collar on the nadt, and several longitudinal
white parallel lines along the npperpart ufthc bo<l^.

15. L. Umniecnla. Laced L. Nine white longitu-
<final lines upon the back and sides ; long tail, blue on
the upper part; thighs spottad with white, and the
middle dorsal line two-forked next the head.

Le L GmlomiU, Daud. iiL p. 175. pi. xxxvi. fig. I.
Lacepede, i part ii. art. V5.

Ijieerla lemmieeata Linn, a Gntelin, p. 1075.

16. L itjlineata. Six-ttripeti L. Blackith brown
above, with tix longitudinal white lines upon the back,
with another short white line extending mnn the eyes
over the shoulders ; tail twice as long as the body, and
thigba without spot*.

Le Latijt rau, Daud. iiL p. 1S3.

'I/Kerta ee-xUaeata, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1074.

Ije lioM, Lacepede, i. part ii art. 24.

17. /.. boMfUiaaa. Bu«iuian L. Bright blue above, ■«»<H"*»»--
with nine white longitudinal lines, witii intermediate

dots upon the back and sides, tlie middle line being
rfiort and undivided ; tail twice as long as the body ;
thiffhs spotted with white.

Z« L botquiea, Daud. iii p. 188. pi. xxxvi. fig. 2.

18. L. cmruleoiepJkata. Blue headed L. Hcnd blue
with a white longitudinal line alung tbe roiddlu of the
back; two yellow parallel lines on each side ; white dots
upcm tbe thighs, aiid tail twice tbe length of the bu>ly.

Ix L a the bteur, Daud. iii. p. !<)

19. La tryou. Teyou L. L^pper part of the head
green ; back violet colour, with one green line and six
white ones: throat and belly ofa silvery white.

Ije L leuou terd, Daud. liL p. 195.

20. L. deterti. Desert L. Tail the length of the
body ; back black, with six white interrupted longitu-
dinal lines ; belly white without spots.

tje L du deerrl. Dau<l. iii. p. Ii(9.-

I^CfTta deteiti, l.inn. a Gnieiiii, p. 1076".

81. L *elox. 8wi(\ L. Body ajth coloured above, vs- Viloa
negated wKh brown d<its, ami five longitudinal streaks
<■£■ lighter colour; sides spotted with black and blue.

i'LAVa

ccxcvil.
Fig. 14.

Scxlincau.

C<miIeo«

capbala.

Teyou.

Dciertb

if

H E R P E T O L O G Y.

Reptile*.
Lupiib.

Macolau.

Atilu.

BfongBui-

6«ric*«.

LaurtntiL

Araucola.

Fnm.
ArgDU.

Quioque-

StraU.

Le L. veloct, Dauil. iii. p. 202.
Lacerta velox, Liun. a Gmelin. p. 1072.

Sect. IV. S/yolted Lizards.

22. /-. lepiffa. Languetloc L. Body greenish blue
above, witli nine or ten transverse black bands, spotted
with small round white eyes ; belly whitish; taW scarce-
ly longer than the body.

" /.<• L. genlil du iMiiguedoc, Daud. iii. p. 204. pi.
xzxvii. fig. I.

23. /,. macuhla. Spotted L. Blackish blue above,
with a few round sijots of a pale violet; belly whitish;
tail once and a half as long again as the botlj'.

Lt L. tachele d'Etpagiw, Daud. iii. p. 208. pi. xxxvii.
fig. 2.

Sect. V. Gret/ Lisard*.

2+. Ij. agUis. Agile L. Ash coloured above, whi-
tish below ; back marked with a longitudinal dotted
brown line, and a subreticulated brown longitudinal
6troke, edged with paler colour on each side of tlie body.

Le L. grit des vturaiUes, Daud. iii. p. 211. pi. xxxviii.
fig. 1.

25. L. brongniardi. Brongniardian L. Bluish grey,
irregularly marbled on the back with black spots, and
with three longitudinal lines of black spots and dots on
each side.

Le L. brovsniardien, Daud. iii. p. 221.

'J6. L. Serxcea. Silky L. Brownish above, shaded
with glossy green and blue ; pale green below ; tail
twice as long as the body, and a little streaked.

Le L. soyeux, Daud. iii. p. SZ*.

27. L. laurentii. Laurentian L. Ash brown above,
everywhere spotted, with the spots upon the back ob-
scure, those on the sides disposed in a triple longitudi-
nal row.

Le L. de Laurenli, Daud. iii. p. 227.

28. L. arenicola. Sand L. Brownish grey, paler
without spots below, with a row of brown spots upon
the back, and a double series of brown eyes dotted with
white, and another single row of white dots on each
side.

Le L. ar&nicole, Daud. iii. p. 230. pi. xxxviii. fig. 2.
29- L.fuxca. Brown L. Dark brown, with a lon-
gitudinal row of obscure spots on each side ; belly paler.
Le L. l/ruH, Daud. iii. p. 237.

30. /.. arguta. Sharp snouted L. Tail short and
vertidllated, thick at the base, and very shai-p at the
tip ; a remarkable double plate under the neck ; gene-
ral colour sea green, with numerous transverse black
bands ; belly white.

Le L. a museau poitUue, Daud. iii. p. 2i0.
Lacerta argnta, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1072.

Sect. VI. Dracenoid Lizards.

Having two scaly folds under the neck, and a cylin-
drical tail verticillated at its proximal, and reticulated
at its distal, half

31. L. quinquelinenta. Five-streaked L. Bluish,
with five longitudinal black lines upon the back, and
white spots on each side.

Le L. a cinq rales, Daud. iii. p. 243.

Sect. VI. Striated Lizards.
Si. L. striata. Striated L. Grey, bluish at tlie sides.

Saurian
Reptiles.

with two longitudinal brown lines ; scales of the back
and belly carmated, and forming longitudinal streaks.

Le L. strie, Daud. iii. p. 247-

A considerable degree of uncertainty and ambiguity
prevails among writers, respecting tiie animals called
Lizards. It) with Linnaeus and his followers, we com-
prehend under this name not only the species just enu-
merated, but the Tupinambcs, tlie Stellios, the Basilisks,
the Guanas, the Geckos, the Chameleons, the Scinks, and
the otlier tribes of the SaurLm order, we shall find it com-
prehend above 1 50 species ; and even curtailed as it is
by the modern French naturalists, we see that it is
pretty numerous. As it is impossible for us, within the
circumscribed limits of an article like the present, to
describe even all the most important species, we shall
here confine ourselves entirely to a general account of
those which .ire found in the British islands.

Mr Pennant, in the 3d vol. of his British Zoology, has
described only three species of lizard as belonging to
Britain, viz. the Scaly lizard, (a variety of Lacerta agi-
lis, Linn.) the War/y lizard, ( Lacerta palustris, Linn. )
and the Brown lizard, {Lacerta vulgaris, Linn.) He
indeed mentions two more, the Little brown lizard, and
the Snake-shaped lizard, from Ray, but gives nothing
on these species from his own observation.

Mr Revett Sheppard, in a paper published in the 7th
vol. of the Linnean Transactions, has particularised six
species as being indigenous in this country, viz. Lacer-
ta agilis, scaly or swift lizard ; L. cedura, swelled-tailed
L. ; L.'anguiformis, viperine L. ; L. vulgaris, brown L. ;
L. palustris, warty lizard; and L. maculata, spotted L.
Ot these he seems to consider the 2d, 6th, and per-
haps the 3d, as new species. His descriptions of these
species are sufficiently minute, but he adds nothing re-
specting their habitats or manner of life.

The species most common in this country are the
Warty lizard, or water newt, and the Brown lizard, or
common land newt ; and of these the former has been
most minutely examined. The warty lizard is extreme-
ly common in ponds and other stagnant waters. The
young lizards continue for some time in an imperfect
or larva state, and the perfect animals annually change
their skin. *

Gesus XIII. Takvdromus. TAKYDROME.

This genus has been formed by Daudin for the pur- Taky-
pose of including two species, which differ from the li- i>aoME
zards, properly so called, in having a very slender bo- *^^'""-
dy, which, as well as the extremely long tail, is verti-
cillated, or formed of scaly carinated rings. They
have also two small vesicles at the base of each thigh,
a long extensile forked tongue, and a remarkable con-
traction between the head and body. There are two
species, viz.

Species 1 . Takydrornus quadrilinealus. Four-streak- Quadrili-
ed Takydrorae. Brown above, whitish below, with two neatus.
longitudinal white lines on each side.

Le Takydrome brun a qualre raies, Daud. iii. p. 252.

2. 2\ sexlineatus. Six-streaked T. Bright shining Sexlineatut.
blue, with three longitudiniil black lines on each side
of the body. See Plate CCXCVII. Fig. 15. Pi^ate

lyC T. nacre a six raies, Daud. iii. p. 256. pi. xxxix. y^'^'^fy^''

These animals inhabit dry places, and, as their ge- '^' '
neric name imports, run with great swiftness.

* We h«»e laid (p. 31.) that the lizards tat innoceot rrptilet, a potitioD now generally maintained by modem naturalists. We arc,
however, aMuicd, by an intclliijeni friend, a clergyman, tliat when a boy, be bad one of bis fingeiG so much afiected, in consequciKe of
baadling a brown lizard, u to be very neatly in a >ute of gangrene.

HERPETOLOGY.

S3

ft:sr\.t

OtBIM.

Plats
ccxcvii.

MibMja.

BJiaotujL

GknvsXIV. SciiKDa. SCINKS.

Body long and rmther thick, entirely covered with el-
b'pUcaf or rounded imbricated ncales. Head oblong,
covered above with a few pUtes ; tongue rather thick,
■hart, and tiij^litly cleft at ita tip. Tail knser or short*
er in the diSerent •pedea, covered with icaMs cimilar to
thoae of the body. Faet •brang, rather ihort and thin,
furniahed each with five long, tliin, separate toe*. tCT-
minating in claws.

This u a numerooa tribe, ooniprehending 81 wftan,
which are all nativea at warn cHmatea They are
bri*k in their motions. Mid load of basking in the sun>
•hine. They live in dry stony plaeaa, and feed on in-
sects. The species are airai^gcd by Daudin in four
sections, asfiiUowa.

Sbct. I. Omnmm Scinh.

Tail short and conical ; colour grey, having generally
transverse bands of a doner ooloar.

SptcietX. Sdmauqgkmatu. OAdnal Sdnk. Grey,
begirt with trsnsverae bUckiab soom; back a little an>
giuai; mussle short and scats; tail oanprsasad at tbe
tip; margin of the toss sstiatcd.

Le tcinque ontimmirt dfEgjnl, daud. iv. p. 130.

Laetrim teimeus, Linn, a Oniel. p. 1077.

Q0kmml idmk, Shaw, iii. p|. Ixxix.

Lt tdm^m, Laoep. ii. part ii. art. S4. pL L Ig. SL

8. & gMMmuf, UaMw-wasp S. Thick, brown abov,
with laiji* moaded 'mJbtiaud scales ; monk taper,
withpUiss on ito nwar patt; tail thick hmI short.
See pW CCXCVII.Tig. 1&

Le gn* S. gaUu-matp dt la Jamaimit, Daud. iv.
P.SS9.

S. S.gifm*. Giants. \Mute, with lUMtoCB tnOM-
verse ban£; tail of oodatat* le^jth.

Lt S. grOM/, Oaad. i«. p^ 844.

4. .S. maUnjfm. Uabouya S. Shininf adt-brovn,
with nuroeroas snail black spoU above each ad* ; sides
and belly pale ; tail elongated ; ownb pcoaunent.

Le S. MO&wya, Daucf. iv. p. 84& iaci^adr. ii.
part iL art. 24. pi. ii. fig. 1.

A. 5 tiiigMgu. TiliffuguS. TailarnodaalBlcMtli.
RMmd, and eonieal ; body thick, brown above, thick-
ly sH with blMk dots, whitish beknr.

Lt 8, ttKtm; Daodiv. p. 851.

ttfoerte Mjngw, Linn, a GmeL n. I07S.
mamBmnl. Shaw.

Skct. II. Wkilt^rtmlmi Stmk*.

6. 5. JEmt%t. Bronse S. Body slender, of a brtna*
colour, with a broad kmgitndinal pale ttreak npon tha
back ; tail once and a biOrtbe length of the body.

Le S. bronse, Daod. iv. p. 8A4w

7- S. bilintatui. Two^atrcaked S. Brownish, with
two white kiu|itiMiiiiallinaeiqwo the back, with brown
spots disposed in rows.

Le S.a deux raki, Daud. iv. p. 856.

LaetrtamttqmncUUa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1075.

8. 8. tr^mgatu*. Three- streaked S. Brawn above,
with tbiae longitudinal white lines ; tail a little longer
than the body, with tbs scales oo iU b^Jc part bau>
gonaL

LeS.a troU rtdet, Daod. iv. p. 86S.

9. S. qtudrUmemlmt, Foar-streaked S. Tail kxig
iBd round; fore feet four-toed; hind feet five-toM,
with two langitudiaal white lin« on aacfa ode of the
body.

SI. MRT L

Reptiles.

Algirs.

Quinque.
lincsiwi.

CnuDUtu>.

Octolinn-
uu.

Le S. a quaire rates, Dand. iv. p. 266.
Lacerta quadrUineata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1076.
Le quatre rates, Lacepedc, ii. part ii. art 57.

10. S. Algira. Algerinc S. Scales of the back c*>
rinated ; two yellow longitudinal lines aa each side of
the body ; tail long and round.

U S. Algire, Daud. iv. p. 269.
Lacerta Algira, Linn, a Gmel. p, 1073.
L'Almre, Lacep. ii. part ii. art. S2.

11. S. ^Huiquetineatut. Five-streaked S. Blackish
above, with five longitudinal yellow or white lines up-
on the back ; whitish below ; tail oS moderate length.

Le S. a cinq raiet, Daud. iv. p. 272. pi. Iv. fig. 1.

Lacerta qtunaueiiaeala, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1075.

Le S. Mri^, Laeepede, ii. part ii. art. .S8.

18. 5. cruentatMt. Bloody S. Tail a little verticil-
lated ; ash colour above, scarlet bdow, with a whitish
tip ; seven white streaks upon the neck, four of which
reach to the tail.

Le S. tntoMglanU de la Siberie, Daud. iv. p. 278.

Lacerta ementa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 107*2.

Red^mUidtimrd, Shaw.

IS. S.wtelmmanu. BUck-tailed S. Pale ash colour MeUnunii.
above, marked with seven longitudinal yellowish lines ;
ydlowtsh below ; tail round and black, twice as long
as the body.

Le S. a tepi raiet et a queue noire de flnde, Daud.
iv. p. 880.

14. S. oettUmatut. Eight-streaked S. Black above,
with eight loofitadinal whitish lines ; whitish below ;
tail fermgiaoaa, and twice as long as the body.

LeS. a kuit raiet de la SonteUe JloUandt, Daud. iv.
p. 885.

The ribboned lizard. White's Foyage to New South
Waitt, p. S45.

Sbct. III. BUck-ilreaktd Scinkt.

1 5. 5. tloanii. Sloanian S. Brown above, with four sioaniL
black longitudinal lines, of which the intermediate are
sboftctt ; tail a little longer tiuin the body, « ith round-
ed imbricated scales on its proximal, and hexagonal vcr-
tidllated scales on its distal half.

Le S. dommen, Daud. iv. p. 887. pi. Iv. fig. 2.

16. & tchneiderii. Schnciderian S Bright brown-
ish above, with a pale longitudinal line on each side,
whitish below ; tail twice as long as the body.

Le S. tckneidMen, Daud. iv. p. 891.
Le Dore, Laeepede, ii. part ii. art. 36.

17. 6^. trittahu. Sallow S. Back pale brown ; Trutauni.
■ides of a deeper colour, marked with a double pale loii-
gitndinal band ; tail long and cylindrical.

Le S. rtmbrmai, Daud. iv. p. 896.

18. S. Imtieept. Broad headed S. Head behind the
eyes, broad, oolonr brownish, spotted with black ; tail
as king as the body, having its oistal part covered both
above and below with tisusvf ■» plates.

Le S. a large the, Daud. iv. p. 901.

19. 5. carinatut. Ridged S. Scales carinated; tail Ciriostas.
twice as long ss the body, covered with scsles as in the

last species.

Le S. CarhU. Daud. iv. p. 304.

Skct. IV. OctOated Sdnlet.

SO. 5. octUatut. Eye-spotted S. Ash coloured OoeUsnw.
above, with numerotis transverse lines of black scales ;
yellow in the middle ; tail about the length of the body.

Le S. Octlle de Ckypre et tf Egypt, Daud. iv. p. 308.
pi. IvL

Schnelderil.

Ltticfpf.

34

HERPETOLOGY.

Saurian
Reptile*.

l.atrnli*.

ClU,

Jjtceria ocellata. Linn, a 6me1. 1077.

21. S. lateralis. Varieijatwl S. Ash coloured
nbove, witl/transvcrse rows of black spot', with oblong
white (lots in the niitldle ; black longitudinal lines,
(k>ttcd below with white upon the sides; tail shorter
than the Iwdy, and ending suddenly in a point.

Le S. a bandes lalerales, Daud. iv. p. 314.

Of all these species, the first or Egyptian scink is the
most celebrated, both from the high estimation in which
it is held by the natives, and for its having been once
employed in Europe as a medicine. It is a small ani-
mal, seldom exceeding six or seven inches in length,
and is of a pale yellowish brown colour. In its man-
ners it is perfectly harmless ; and so active in its mo-
tions, that it hides itself in the sand in an instant.
This species is so numerous in some parts of the East,
that several thousands of them have been seen at once
in the great court of the temple of the Sun at Balbec.
The ground, the walls, and scattered stones of these
ruinous buildings, were covered with them, exhibiting
a beautiful appearance from their glittering colours, as
they lay basking in the sun. See Brace's Travels.

Genus XV. Seps. EFTS.

Body, neck, and tail very long, thin, cylindrical, and
covered with imbricated scales of a roundish or ellipti-
cal form. Head tliin, oblong, covered above with few
scales ; tongue rather thick, short, and slightly cleft at
its tip. Either four or two feet extremely short, sim-
ple, very slender, scaly, furnished with one, two, three,
lour, or five toes, indistinct, sometimes with claws,
SQinetimes without.

The animals which compose this genus so nearly re-
semble some of the serpents, as scarcely to be distin-
guished from them by a casual observer. Indeed, if
we except the short and often indistinct feet, and the
marks of an external auditory orifice, they possess almost
all the other characters of serpents ; and accordingly
several of them have been ranked among the Ophidian
reptiles. In their habitudes and manners, they nearly
resemble the scinks, though, from the shortness of their
feet, their motions are rather those of snakes than li-
zards. Daudin enumerates six species, arranged under
the two following sections.
<

Sect. I. Four-footed Efcs.

Species I. Seps pentadactylus. Five-toed Eft. Five
toes on each foot, fumishedf with claws ; bay or ash co-
loured alKJve, with numerous longitudinal brown streaks;
whitish below. See Plate CCXCVIII. Fig. 17.

Le Seps quadrupide pentadactyle, Daud. iv. p. 325,

Lacerta serpens, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1078.

8. 5. tridaclylus. Three-toed E. Feet furnished
with three extremely short toes without nails ; bay or
ash colour abovCj with four longitudinal brown streaks ;
paler below. -

Le S. quadrupeds tridactyk, Daud. iv. p. 333, pi. Ivii.

3. .9. monodactyliis. One-toed E. Feet extremely
thin and short, comiwsed of one toe without claw ; tail
three times as long as the body ; scales subimbricate,
and slightly carinatedf

Le S. quadrupede monodactyle, Daud. iv. p. 342, pjate
Iviii. fig. 1.

Lacerta anguina, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1079.

Sect. II. Two-footed Efts.
Schaeiderii. ^ jg schneiderii. Schneiaerian S. Whitish above,

4

tftdt*.

Pcntidacty.
ku.

Plate
ccxctiii,
Pig. 17.

I'ndictylus.

Monodac-
tjlut.

with a brown line ; brown below ; feet remote from Saimaa
the aiiKS, extremely short, either two or three-toed ; Heptilcs.
toes without claws, and as if arising from a common '"'V^
pedicle.

/,« S. schneiderien, Daud. iv. p. 348.

5. S. sheltonusik. Sheltopusik S. Head and body gheltopu-
withoiit distinct separation ; tail long and round, as sik.
well as the body, covered with pale imbricated scales ; •

rudiments of hinder feet only, two-toed, and without
claws, at the anus.

Le S. bipede sheltopusik, Daud. iv. p. 351.

Lacerta apoda, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1079.

6". S.gronovii. Gronovian E. Dorsal scales dotted Gronovll;
with brown ; tail smooth at the tip ; hinder feet only,
very short, with one toe and no claw.

Le S. groiiovien, Daud. iv. p. 354, pi. Iviii. fig. 2.

Lacerta bipes, Linn, a Gmel, p. 1079.

Genus XVI. Ciialcides. CHALCIDES.

These reptiles differ from those of the last genus only py v,f ,,
in the disposition of the scales that cover the body and des Genus,
tail, which, instead of being imbricated as in the seps,
are arranged in r;ngs, or verticillated. They inhabit
similar situations, and have similar manners. There
are fo<ir species, of which three are four-footed, and one
two-footed.

Sect. I. Four-footed Chcdcides.

Species 1. Chalcides tetradactylus. P'our-toed Chal- Tetradacty
cides. Scales of the belly h.exagonal, with a longitudi- '"*•
nal furrow on each side of the body ; feet four-toed.

Leckalcide quadrupede tetradacti/le, Daud. iv. p 362.

2. C. tridactylus. Three-toed C. Feet three toed, Tridacty-
very short, and without claws ; tail a little longer than lus.

the body. See Plate CCXCVIII. Fig. 18. '"'-^'te

Le Chalcide quadrupede tridaclyle, Daud. iv. p. 367, ccxcviii.

pi. Iviii. fig. 3. .. . "^^'^

Le Chalcide, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 52.

3. C. monodadt/lus. One-toed C. Feet short and Monodtc-
very slender, with one toe without claw ; tail once and '^'"*'

a half the length of the body, and cylindrical.
Le C. quadrupide monodacttjle, Daud. iv. p. 370.

Sect. II. Two-footed Chalcides.

4. C. propus. Grooved C. Fore feet only with fiive Propus.
toes, of which four are clawed and one naked ; each side

of the body longitudinally furrowed.

Le C. bipede canncle, Daud. iv. p. 372. pi. Iviii. fig; 4.

Bipede cannele, Lacepede, ii. p. 325.

Several remains of Saurian reptiles, in a fossil state,
have been discovered in the bowels of the earth, parti-
cularly the bones of two species or varieties of croco-
dile, nearly allied to the gavial, but considered by Cu-
vier as distinct from that species. These remains of
crocodiles have been found near Honfleur, Mons, An-
gers, and Havre in France ; at Altorf in Bavaria ; at
Elston near Newark, in the English county of Notting-
ham ; and on the coast of Whitby in Yorkshire. See.
Annales de Museum, tom. xii. p. 73, and Phil. Trans.
vol. XXX. p. 9G3, and vol. 1. p. 688, and 7S6. There
have besides been found in the mountains of St Pierre,
near Maestricht, some enormous bones of a Saurian rep-
tUe, which have occasioned some dispute between
MM. St Fond and Cuvier ; the former alleging them
to be the remains of a gavial crocodile, and the latter ar-
guing, with much plausibility, that although so large.

Fossil Sau-
tians.

H E R P E T O L O G Y

85

UttUm.

they Kfctnble part* of a Tupinambi* rather than of a
crocodile.

Part* at' a winf^ reptile, reawnhlmg the flying dra-
pop, have a)«o haen (bund in a rock near Manheim.
bee Uaud. in IJut. Nat. it* Heptda, tarn viiL p. 89 K

0«DE« III. BATRACIAN REPTILES.

9*1 MX.

ciAaOidcr,

The animab oflhii ankr rcMmblc thoM of the two
preceding in icTcral tcapecta. Like then, they have
all feet, and jawa not farmed, of two brancbea. move*
able OB each other ; and in one part at leaat of their pro-
Mftaa towarda maturity, they have all tail*. Like the
Sauriaoa, their jawa are fumiabcd with teeth, and their
larynx ia capable of pndmdag lound. On the other
hand, tbej <Gfcr front the Chakniana and Sauriana, in
. having a naked body in jamj hwtmrei oovcied with
warta or tubcrdea ; in kiaviag the booca aoft ; in hav-
ing DO exlemal copniative organ in the male, nor any
reel internal one in the feinale. Some of them have a
•tcmiaa, but no riba; other* riba, bat no atannan.
Moat of the tpeciea have four feet in their perfect atate.
All of thaa awioi, aone crawl, and other* leap ; and
the •pecica of oae geoaa attach tliemaclvca to objecta,
bv r9BDd tabardaa Mminatiog Uicir toca. The other
CMVMtnialie nariu have been already mentioitcd in
the frat part of thin aitide.

Modem natnimliala ndum li* gmtn aa belnnging to
tUa order, which Dancril Mrigii Badcr two aaUi-
iriwen*, m fuUowra ;

FaMiLY L Batradam mUkoiU TuU.
Gcvca I. IfTLt. Hylx, or Tin FsoGt.

'TtAC^

L->unJii

Body alighlly conpmacd, ebinHed, an
Tongue abort and tkidk j the two Ave liiet ftiniiAed
with temt toaa, the hinder with fire ; all of thm with*
out dawa, but terminated by lenticular tubercle*.

The tfce-fhig*, aa their name imports, have their
habit at ion in tieca, to the Icavea of which they mSkmn
by the tubaRlea eo their taea, and when thiry are often
aacn leaping ftam branch to branch, or from leaf to
leaf, ia aaerai of worm* and in*ecta. Daring winter
and early apring they *cek the bottaaa of lakco and ri<
vulcta, where, after their bybemetieo ie over, they
pwr, and when the rcaM.e 1*78 b«r aggi. Moatofthie
■pedca are native* of Amcrioa ; bvt aooe an ~"TTrnni>
in France, Italy, and other warm Eiupanu countrieaL.

At the patriM teaaan the male makaa • load ahiai

manner. The croakiqg b teid t0 be perticniariy load
in the evening* on the epawch of rain. It baa alao
beta rcmafkad of tfaaae aaaailak tiMt their (kin haa the

There are twenqr-«i^ tyirim ili<ii%aialieil by the
<bUawiaf aanMa end chanctMa.

Spedca I. Hiflm mridU. Green H. Bright grtrn
above, with a yellow line on each aide, bordered with
a tihfiriih abade eitandh^ from the r^alrib to each
flank, aodflvfluag a dnaeaity above codi kin; wkitUi
beknr.

1^ ToimtUt 9trU, Daud. viii. p. "SS. Laccpedc, ii.
part iii. art. 14.

Ii.inn ftrhtrro, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1054.

Tr, aw.

S. / :•». Flank-atriped H. Brixbt gtecn,

Kgbtcr bcivw, with a ctraight ycUow line upon tlie
aidea of the upper lip, bedv. and limb*.

La R./Unc-raffit, Daud. viii. p. 87.

3. //. UUmaaia. Two ttriped H. Obacnnt green,

Vuirgali.

Bioolor.
Plate
ccxcviii.
Fig. 19.

n'ales, p.

with two parallel longitudinal white Unci a Utile arcLtd Batracian
upon the back. UfpiUc*.

/.a R. bi'ta^, Daud. viii. p. SO. » "~

♦. H. fanoralis. Thigh-spotted H. Green, with FemonOis,
*eveii or more yellow spota on the upper port of tlic
thiglu.

La It. femorale, Daud. viii. p. S-2. pi. xciii. fig. 1.

6. H. tquirtUa. Ycllow-rumped H. Obscure gretn, ^ .
with brown apota upon the l>acK, and yellow rump. 'liufeU*-

La R. iquirtHe, Daud. viii. p. S4. pi. xciii. fig. S.

6. H. tforiegala. Variegated H. Brown iibove,
with green doiticulated »poU ; limbs marked with
transverae green bands ; toe* flattened.

La R. bigarrt, Daud. viii. p. S6.

7. //. tntermiila. Mixed coloured H. Greenish Intermixu.
gray above, ijitetapened with red *pota and dot* ; pale

red below.

Im R. mHawgit, Daud. viii. p. 38.

8. H. Ucolor. Two coloured H. Blue almve, yel-
lowiah I ' ' ' -)>ots turrounded witli violet.
See PI . 19.

Im iC. bicotore, Uaud. viii. p. 40.
Rana bicoU/r, Linn, a Gmel. 10.32.

9. U. ryeaea. blue l\. Blue above, reddish cloud-
ed ash-colour below ; hinder feet palniated.

L* R. bUue dr la NouvelU Hoilaiide, Daud. viiL p,
♦3.

BUie/rog, White"* Voifagt to New South
848, pr. iv.

10 H.Jrotlalis. Banded H. Bo<ly and leg* red- pmntslik
dislt brown above, with ovale oblong wliile spot*.

Ijt R.a kamieau, Daud. viii. p 4J.

Rmmm kucopiyih, Linn, a (iroel. p. 1054.

II. //. tifciuria. iitaincd H. Body smooth, with
two longitudinal and one tnuuverae yellowish line* '^"'"*"'*-
apon the back.

La R.m lapirtr, Daud. viii. p. \9.

19. It. J'ttaca. Brown H. Bruwn above; whitish Pom*.
aah-ooluured below ; entirely without spota.

I A R. brume, Daud. viii. p. 51.

/>i bntne, Laccpede, ii. part iii. art. l6.

13. H. miri. Red II. Brownish red above, with a Rubra,
double pak line on each side, and rounded spots above
tbethisdu.

La R. nmge, Daud. viii. p. 55.

La roufe, I.acrpede, ii. part iii. art. 30.

14. H. audrilintata. Four-streaked H. Blue or Qnadnii-
aulphur-yellow above, with a double yellow or whitish "•"*•
line on oKfa side.

La R.m fumtre rates, Daud. viii. p. 55.

15. H. auraaliaca. Orange H. Orange-yellow, Auruitiaca,
with a stain of reddiah upon ma back.

La R. armagie, Daud. viii. p. 57.
L'Ormmgt mpitlelle, Laoep, ii. part iii. art. 19.

16. H.kjfpechondrialiM. Hypochondrial H. Bluish
grey above, with the side* ot*^ the body and limbs yel
lowiah, marked with tranavcise brown bands; toes
clef\.

La R. knochomdriale, Daud. vii!. p. 60.

17. H.tactea. Milky II. Milky white, with a brown-
ish line extending from the nostrils to the eyes; fore-
feet semipalmatetl, hinder palmated.

Im R. iacier, Daud. viii. p. (jK.

18. H. boons. Croaking H. Whitiah ash-coloured,
with brood tranaverse red ami brown atreaka ; head and
mouth broad ; hinder-feet lemipalmaled.

I^a R. btuglanlt, Daud. viii. p. ()4.

Rnna boons, Linn, a GmcL p. 1055.

Croahng frog, .Shaw.

La CoMtur-ac-tait, Lacepcde, iL part iii. art. 17,

Hypothoo.
driilu.

I.sctea.

30

HERPETOLOGY.

OtuUtit.
Vtmicon.

Venulon.

TibUttix.

FdMU-

Punctata.

BlochianA.

Melanoiab-
dota.

Siirinun-

Kawa

tjenus.

19. H. ocultris. Eye-streaked H. Silvery-grey,
with a lateral brown band extending from each eye to
the side ; limbs marked with transverse brown bands.

La R. oculaire, Daud. viii. p. 68.

SO. H. verrucosa. Warty H. Uniformly brownish,
with a warty back.

La R. a verrues, Daud. viii. p. 70.

21. //. marmorata. Marbled H. Yellow-ash, mar-
bled with reddish above, dotted with black below ;
•11 the feet flat and palmated.

L. R. marbre, Daud. viii. p. 71. pi. xciv.
Le Marbre, Lacepede, ii. part. iii. art. 33.

22. H. venulosa. Veined H. Pale reddish, marbled
with irregular red streaks or spots, dotted with brown;
hinder feet semipulmated.

La R. riticulaire, Daud. viii. p. 7*.
Rana venulosa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1053.
La rcUiculaire, Lacepede, ii. part iii. art 6.

23. H. tibiatrix. Flute H. Yellowish white, inter-
spersed above with reddish dots ; hinder feet semipai^
mated.

La R.Jluteuse, Daud. viii. p. 76.

24. H. palmata. Palmated H. Pale reddish, mar-
bled with reddish brown, with two streaks above tlie
limbs ; all the feet palmated.

La R. patle d'oie, Daud. viii. p, 80; Lacepede, ii.
part iii. art 7.

25. H. punctata. Dotted H. Whitish grey or
brownish above, with scattered white dots, and a white
line on each side ; belly white.

La R. ponciuee, Daud. viii. p. 81.

Z6. H. blochtana. BlochianH. Ash-coloured above;
whitish below, with an obscure line extending from the
nostrils to the ear, ajid obscure transverse bands upon
the thighs.

La R. blochienne. Daud. viii. p. 83.

27. H. mclanorabdota. Black spotted H. Green
above, with transverse black spots.

La R. a laches noires, Daud. viii. p. 85.

28. H. surinamensis. Surinam H. Ash-coloured;
marked with ovate red spots above, dotted with black
below ; all the toes separate.

La R. de Surinam, Daud. viii. p. 86.

Genus IL Rana. COMMON FROGS.

Body thick, a little compressed, elongated, moist,
covered with a few small tubercles ; generally granu*
lated below, except at the thorax, which is smooth ;
on each side of the back, above the loins, there is in
some species a longitudinal angular fold ; tongue short
and thick ; the fore feet have four separate toes, with
the thumb a little larger than the rest in the male ; the
hinder feet are almost always palmated, and are much
longer than the body ; the toes are pointed, and have
usually a small tubercle under each articulation.

Common frogs cannot climb like the tree-frogs, nor
can they be said to walk, their proper motion being that
oJ" leaping. They inhabit marshy and boggy places,
and the borders of lakes and ponds, into which they
frequently leap and swim about, either in search of in-
nects, worms, and the fry of fishes, or for amusement.
Here too they pair and lay their eggs.

About the time when the young frogs are come to
maturity, it often liappens thiat migrations take place
among them from a crowded pond or stream, to one
where they are less numerous. On these occasions, it
is astonishing what numbers have been seen at once
crossing a field or road in their way to their new habi-
ution. According to Mr Rae, two or three acres of

ground have been seen nearly covered with them. Frogs
arrive at full maturity in about five years, and are sup-
posed to Uve about twelve or fifteen. The croaking of
some species, especially of that called the bull-frog, is
remarkably loud, and in some parts of America, where
this species abounds, the noise made by their united
croaking is heard at a very considerable distance.

Frogs are capable of being rendered familiar, and
have become so tame as to eat out of the hand. Some
of the species serve for food to man, and most of them
become the prey of the larger animals that inhabit
marshy situations.

Daudin enumerates sixteen species of Rana, viz.

Sp. 1. Rana esculenta. Esculent Frog. Green with
black spots, and three longitudinal yellow lines upon
the back ; belly whitish.

La Grenouille verte, Daud. viii. p. 90.

Rana esculenta, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1053.

La Grenouille commune, Lacepede, ii. part. iii. art. 1.

Gibbous frog. Pennant, Rril. Zool. iii. p. 7.

Esculent, or green frog, Shaw, iii. pi. xxxi.

2. R. temporaria. Common F. Red or brown
above, or greenish, with a blackish spot extending from
the eye through the opening of the ear.

La G. rousse a tempes noires, Daud. viii. p. 94.
Rana temporaria, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1053.
La Rousse, Lacepede, ii. part iii. art. 2.
Common frog, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 3. Shaw, iii. pi. xxxix.

3. jR. punctata. Dotted F. Ash-coloured, dotted
with green above ; feet marked with transverse bands;
toes separate.

La G. ponciuee, Daud. viii. p. 100.

4. R. plicata. Plaited F. Brown, with the sides
double plaited ; breast and arms marked with four
brown spots ; feet separate.

La G.plissee, Daud. viii. p. 102.

5. R. clamata. Noisy F. Dull ash-coloured, inter-
spersed with black dots ; upper lip green ; hind feet
palmated.

Im. G. criarde, Daud. viii. p. 104.

6. R. typhonia. Typhon F. Ash-coloured or red-
dish, with a few brown spots, and either five or three
longitudinal yellow lines upon the back ; belly whitish.

La G. galonnee, Daud. viii. p. 106, pi. xev. La-
cepede, ii. part iii. art xii.

Rana marginata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1053.
Hurricane frog, Shaw.

7. R. rubeUa. Reddish F. Rusty colour above, with
three longitudinal black lines upon the back, and a
triangular white spot upon the forehead.

La G. rougette, Daud. viii. p. 109.

8. R. maculala. Spotted F. Grey, with a square
green spot upon the head, and another round one on
each shoulder ; whitish below, marbled with black.

La G. tachetee, Daud. viii. p. 111.

9. R. pipiens. Bull F. Very large; dark green
above, whitish grey below, interspersed everywhere
with blackish spots.

La G. mugissante, Daud. viii. p, 113. Lacepede,
ii. part iii. art. 9-

Rana ocellata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1052.

Bull/r»g, Catesby's Carolina.

Rana catesbiana, Shaw, iii. pi. xxxiii.

10. R. ocellata. Eye-spotted F. Very large ; red-
dish brown above, with round brown spots, eyed with
yellow on the sides and buttocks.

La G. ocelUe, Daud. viii. p. 118.

11. R. halecina. Pitpit F. Green above, with brown
spots eyed with yellow; three longitudinal lines shaded
with yellow upon the back ; white below.

Batracian
Reptiles.

Species.
Esculents.

Temporaria.

Punctata.

Plicata.

Clamata.

Typhonia.

RubeUa.

Maculata.

Pipiens.

OceUatib

Halfcina.

HERPETOLOGY.

37

-la.

PtATS

ccxcna.

Suriaaa

La G. hatUoMe, Daud. viii. p. 1S2.

12. R. tigmrima. Tierine F. Lju^ge ; greyish-brown,
with a longitudinal yellow line estendinc fitnt the now
to the rump; dark brown spots edged with yellow
above the lanlM, and yellow Inittocks.

La G. HgrHt, Dwid. riii. p. 1^5.

IS. R.grmmun*. Grunting F. Brown or reddish,
wttk oUoog ycDow nota behind the eye*.

Im G. gngnamte, Daad. viiL p. 127.

14. R. paradatm. Paradoxical F. Greenish-ath or
reddish above, iiMililwl with reddish brown ; thighs
marked below with oblique rcddiah lioea. See PUt«
CCXCVIII. Fig. 20.

La G. Jmekie, Daud. riiL p. ISO; Latiep. ii. part iii.
art. II.

Rwt* fmrmdoam, Linn, a GmdL p. 1055.

PmrtJninlJhg. Stmw.

Smrimmmfng or JaekU.

ThcMtiml hialdry of this extraordinarjr animal is
bat ianpnftcthr ondcntood. It baa tang bwa Mmpo-
sed, that it ia ant a ftvg, and afterwarda dMogaa mto
a fish ; in which laBv iMc k is eaten br the natiirci of
Surinam, under the naBaa of Jackie and Frqg-lak.

Conridarabie light has beeo latriy thrown on the
aeaaoBjr of the Surinam ftog by Mr W. M. Ireland
and Sir E. Haaaa, in a paper just published in Tke
Jtmntt pfStintH nd tkt ArU.\»\6, vol. i. p. 55. edited
at tba fiap^ inalltatioii by Mr Bnnda. Mr Ireland has
had tba good fatam to vibMB dM rtiajgaa whkh the
mubmI '■adaMaa ftoB tht t^poia to tha parfiiel atala;
and tha bOowiag k an abalnci of hia riliaaiiittoiii,
with thoaa of Sir k. Ikn^ on the internal structure of
tht tadpala hi two of iti atagea.

Whan firat aaan bjr Mr Irriand. tba tadpole was
aboot fisor inchaa and a half )anm by aboot an neb
broad, had a large bead and ■aaD ■Mmlb, vary ■■cfa
raaamhling tfaeae of a fiah, thoogh the lodhaantaof
two lag* WOTa oridant juat bafaindthe bead. In about
a iaitn^bt, the length of the aaioMl had iacreand to
oi^ iiMfaas, and iu breadth to aboot two and a half;
and tba nidiaMata of tha laga ware «k»aimiaJ into
Baariy parnct SMonn* wnh nve dewed toaa, eni*
•ad Iqr a ntuiibiaiw. evidatiy the Ihtara hfaid 1^ of

Ob afwtnrM ita iataraal iUmtuie during this forU
njgN, the iiilaannal oaal awaara very long, and coiled
■pw and the riiitiaiaan af the nmgs are seen in the poa-
laiar nart of tha balhr.

InaMt three waaai the faa^hgi aaka their 8|^
■aaiMice, tha bead and nwolh aaa«Ba thair ordinary

« M» hadlrin at dM battoBi af the vaMal hi a torpid
clhre and Ihrehr, aid wmiWy re>
m tha water, with ila aonlh dwva
hei By thia thne tha iiilwiiial <—al ia won.
' akeaan ia extant and aMMaaMoai t^'*^ eot^
tactad^appanntlytolaaathan hatftelaMh. and ha-
ving bat vary fSrw shart convoiiitiona, and nearly tlie
whole of the cavity of the belly is filled with ftt.

In aboot HZ weah% the liwal ia graathr eontracted
in siae, bafa)g liitla man than three aNfaaa hng by
aboMan faici hi breadd^ mA haa baoooM a pifttt
A<qg. ««cipt MBa anaU faaMhH of the tdl, whtdh baa
haai giadnally rfanpiring o^ or abaurbed, and ttiedia-
inawanea of wfaia haa aa gready eontracted theani-

The apawiame of the tadpole, in the state usually
I the Frog.fisb, U Aewn in Plate CCXCV. Fig, 17.

which is reduced to one-fourth of its natural length, BatmaUn
and the animal nearly in its perfect state, and one-half .^'P'^"'.,
its natural siae, is represented in Plate CCXCVIII. >
Fig. 20.

15. R. arunco. Arunco F. Body warty ; feet pal- Anmco.
mated.

La G. arunco, Daud. viii. p. 134.

16. R. tkaml. Yellow F. Body warty; yellow feet, ThsuL
semipalmated.

La. G. thaul, Daud. viii. p. 136.
Jleaa lulea, Linn, a GmcL p. 1050.

GiNoIII. Bora TOADS.

Body thick, short, and broad, more or less warty on Boro G«-
the upper surface ; head thick and short ; eyes large >"»••
and protuberant, with a vertical pupil ; tongue short
and thick ; skin dilsUble by inflation ; belly often gra-
nolated; fore* feet with four separate toet, the thumb
laraar in the male ; hinder feet catnparativelv short,
and generally palroated with five toes ; all the toea
pointed, but without claws.

From the construction of their legs and feet, toada
do not leq> oo well as frogs, but they walk better, and
swim with fitdlity. In tiwtr other habits and modes of
life they resemble frags, except that, when irritated or
tenified, they emit from the pores of their warty skin
a aort of frothy fluid, which, though not venomous, at
waa ftraaariy iM|ipuaed, ia aofficiently irriuting to af-
fcet daHeata parts of the akin of an animal that toucbea
it. It is acaradv now naraaaanr to remark, that the
stone in tbe toa^a bead, whidi baa given rise to Shake-
ft beautiful simile, is only a poetical fiction, thoee
which have received that name appearing
oidy to be tbe fbaail teeth of a spades of fish.

Toads iiwd on worms and insecta, and in their turn
became the prey of tlie lar«r birds and snakes ; and it
is said, that tfaeur teh, so nr firom being venomous, a£>
fords aa wboleaome nutriment as that of the <Vog.
Sosne of these animala are also capable of being domes-
ticatad. We are infaniieJ by Mr Pennant, that an in-
dividual of the cuimiiMii toed was known to frequent
the Mepe of a gentleman's house in Devonshire for
thirty-six ycers, where it was accustomed to be fed ev»>
ry evening by the family and their visitors.

Tbe aoooonta that have been published in variooa
werka, respecting living toads found in hollow treaa
and blocks of atone, however extraordinanr, seem •»
well anthaHieated, thet we can scarody doubt tbe rea-
lity of soch occurrencae, thevgh we cannot setirfactori-
ly account for them.

There art about thirty-two spadM of toad which are Spcdcsk
thus distingttiabed.

Sptdt* I. Bajo ml^arit. Common Toad. Pale red-
disn-esh oolooied, wrth red pustules above, reddish-
white below.

Li ermpmtid ctndrt a ptutmla rotuet, Daud. viiL p. 1 59.

9. B. emtmu. Cineraoiu T. Uniformly aah ctdour-
edf poatnlar.

LeC7emir4, Daud. viii. p. HI.

8. B. JIaviaemlru. Yellow bellied T. Ash colour- purtYen.

Vulgsrkk

Cio<

aaiCMt ad andpustular above, sulphur-yellow bdow.
idi baa Le C. a ttenlrt jamte, Daud. viii. p. liS.

tris

4. B. panameniU. Panams T. Ash coloured ; pus- PaninicD-
tules tipt witli violet, ycllowi«h below; feet scmipal- as.
matecL

LeC.de panama, Daud. viii. p. 145.

5. B. bombinut. Natter-jack T. Olive-brown above, BoaibiouF.

88

HERPETOLOGY.

Batncian
HqiOlca.

fioetelll

CalamiU.

Viritlu.

Cibbosus.

fiucus.

Cunor.

GttUerio-

Ventrico-

LaTi&

Dorsigei.

orange-yellow below, with bluish spots and a fold be-
low the throat.

Le C. tonnant ou pluviale, Daud. viii. p. 146.

Among other synonymes under this species, Daudin
refers to

Rana bombina, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1048 ; Rana rttbi-
ta, ibid. p. 1047; Rana salsa, ibid. p. 1049.

La sonnante, Lacepede, ii. part iii. art. 4 ; La pluviale,
ibid. art. 3.

Natterjack, Pennant, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 12.

6. B. roeselli. Roesellian T. Greenish above, with
elevated dark brown sjjots ; greenish-ash coloured be-
low ,- feet palmated.

Ia! C. de roesel, Daud. viii. p. 150. plate xcvi.
Rana bufo, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1047.
Toad, f'ennant, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 7; Shaw's Gen.
Zool. iii. plate xl.

Lc Crapaud commun, Lacepede, ii. part iii. art. 21.

7. B. calamita. Calamite T. Olive above, with dark
spots, reddish pustules, and a longitudinal yellow line
along the middle of the back.

Le C. calamite, Daud. viii. p. 153; Lacep. ii. part ii.
art. 25.

8. B. viridis. Green T. Marked above with conti-
guous green spots, and irregular whitish-livid lines dot-
ted with red ; feet semipalmated.

Ae C. verd, Daud. viii. p. 156; Lacep. ii. part iii.
art. 22.

9. B. sibbosus. Gibbous T. The body ovate, smooth,
•convex, brownish above, with a longitudinal yellow in-
dented band along the middle of the back ; toes sepa-
rate.

Le C. bosiu, Daud. viii. p. 158; Lacep. ii. part iii.
art. 29.

Rana gibbosa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1047.
Gibbous load, Shaw.

10. B.fuscus. Brown T. Marked above with broad
brown spots, interspersed with livid ash-coloured lines,
and one pale longitudinal line ; hind feet palmated.

L. C. bntn, Daud. viii. p. 161 ; Lacep. ii. part iii.
art. 24.

11. B. cnrwr. Courier T. Smootbish above, spot-
ted with reddish and black, with warty sides, yellowish
below, with three black spots upon the breast ; toes se-
parate.

Le C. courier, Daud. viii. p. 1C4.

12. B. gutterrosus. Swelled throated T. Grey, spot-
ted with brown, warts sliarp, and reddish at the tip ;
throat swoln.

Le C. goiireux, Daud. viii. p. 166; Lacep. ii. part iii.
art. 28.

1 3. B. venlricosus. Inflated T. Mouth narrow, arms
and thighs surrounded with a lax skin, capable of in-
flation.

Le C. ventru, Daud. viii. p. 1G8.

Rana ventricosa, Linn, a Gmel. p. IOI9.

Humid toad, Shaw.

Ii. B. Itevis. Smooth T. Pale yellow, with a smooth,
rather flattened body, and a longitudinal row of small
pointed tubercles above each side.

Le C. lisse, Daud. viii. p. 171.

15. B. dorsiger. Surinam T. Dark brown, head
flat and triangular ; eyes minute, situated at the top of
the head ; toes of the fore, feet separate, and three or
four forked at their tips ; hind feet palmated ; cells on
the back in the female.

Le C. pipa, Daud. viii. p. 172 ; Lacep. ii. part iii.
art. 30.

Jiana pipa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1046.

Surinam toad, Shaw, iii. plate xxxi,

16. B. obsteiricans. Accoucheur T. Dirty green,
with small irregular brown spots above ; whitish be-
low.

Le C. accoucheur, Daud. viii. p. 176.

1 7. B. Margaritifer. Pearly T. A coriaceous auricu-
lar lobe above each side of the head ; numerous warts
upon the body, bearing some resemblance to pearls ;
hinder feet semipalmated.

Le C. perli; Daud. viii. p. 1 79.

Rami margaritifcra, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1050.

Pearled toad, Shaw.

La perk, Lacep. ii. part iii. art. 10.

18. B. Surinamensis. Dwarf Surinam toad. Bright
brown above ; belly dotted with grey, with a white
line on the hips ; all the toes separate.

Le C. de Surinam. Daud. viii. p. 184.

19. B.allwnotalus. White spotted T. Brown; slight-
warted, with a white line extending from each nostril
to each thigh ; upper part of the limbs spotted with
white.

Le C. a taches blanches, Daud. viii. p. 185.

20. B. avails. Oval T. Head short; muzzle long;
body ovate, nearly globular; brownish or bluish above,
yellowish below ; feet palmated.

Le C. ovale, Daud. viii. p. 1 87-

21. B. lincttltts. Striped T. Warty, brownish red,
with a white line drawn from each nostril through the
eyelids to the hind feet, another on each arm ; white
bands upon the limbs, and all the toes separate.

La C. rayc, Daud. viii. p. 1S8.

22. B. musicus. Musical T. Brown above, with
blackish .spots ; head furrowed above ; limbs marked
with blackish bands.

Le C. cri^rd, Daud. viii. p. I9O.
Rana musica, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1046.
Musical food, Shaw.

23. B. Scaber. Rough T. Yellowish, with black
lips; body a little spinous, especially about the legs;
head furrowed above ; hind feet slightly palmated.

Le C. rude, Daud. viii. p. J 94.
Lepiistuleux, Lacepede, ii. part iii. art. 27.

24. B. bcngalensis. Bengal T. Body thickly co-
vered with w'arts ; yellowi.sh grey ; head slightly fur-
rowed above ; black sharpish pointed warts below the
feet ; hind feet semipalmated.

Lc C. du bengale, Daud. viii. p. 197.

25. B. spinosus. Spinous T. Dark brown above,
with broad spots of a paler hue ; pale grey below, with
tubercles tipt with a black spine.

Le C. ejwieux. Daud. viii. p. 199.

26. B. horridus. Horrid T. Dark green above;
warty, with numerous small black spines on eacli tu-
bercle, hiarbled below with green and paler shades ;
all the toes separate.

Le C. hcrisse, Daud. viii. p. 201.
Australian frog, Shaw.

27. B. spinipes. Spine-footed T. Brown above,
bluish below ; sides marked with ochry colour ; fore
feet spinous above.

Le C. spinepede. Daud. viii. p. 203.

28. B. humeralis. Shoulder-knot T. Very large;
ash-grey, irregularly spotted with brownish; parotid
glands lai'ge and gibbous.

Le C. epaule armee, Daud. viii. p. 205.

Rana marina, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1049.

La grenauille epaule armee, Lacep. ii. part iii. art. 8.

Marine toad, Shaw.

29. B. semitunatus. Semilonated T. Blackish, with

Batt aci.-ui
Reptiles-

Margariti-
fer,

Surinamfn-

sis.

Albonota-
tus.

Ovalis.

Lincatui.

Musictis. i

Scaber.

Bcngalen-
sis.

Spinosus.

Horridus.

Spinipes,

Humer.ilis.

Semiliina-
tus.

HERPETOLOGY.

39

RcpcOn.

Ar*

;yiifc

Cenmat.

«t(_*IUS-

a white spot behind each ear ; bead slightly furrowed
above ; hinder feet gemipalmated.

Lt C demi-lune, Daiid. viii p. 20S.

Sa B. a^a. Druilian T. Very large; beautifully
marUed with yellow, brown, and grey, and rough with
tubercles ; large parotid glands ; hinder feet very slight-
ly palmatcd.

he C. ague, Daud. viii. p. 8O9. — Laoep. ii part iiL
art.S«.

Rana hraziUensit, Linn, a Gmel. p. \0%Q.

31. B. ryanopfilflit. Blue-warte«l T. Bluish brown
above, with blue pu«tule« on each «ide, extending from
the eyen to the lower part of the breast and sides, and
thence to the rump.

Le C. a pmsluUs bUmet. Daud. viii. p. 21 2.

Si. B.ommtut. Homed T. Head Urge, with a long
conical protuberance, or horn, upon euh upper eye-
lid.

I^ Ceormn, Daud. viiL p. 214. — Lacepede, ii. part iii.
art. 31.

Rtma eonnUm, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1050.

HorneJ/ng, Shaw.

Family II, TmUd Batraciam*.
Gnct IT. SukLaMANDRA. SAL.\MANDERii.

Body elongated, cylindrical, naked, sonctimea warty,
and terminated by a tail that is either cylindrical or
ftattencd, so aa to form a fin, and penittent. No ex-
ternal ears; tooguc abort, thick, and entirely 6aed
within the lower jaw. Fore feet having either three or
four toe* ; hinder fumisbcd with five toes, all blunt, and
without claws.

Till within thcae ftw Toar*, the salamanders had been
ranked among theMxaida. to which thev arc allied onl^
IVtm their having a tail, and fVom *' r position

and atfoetiire of their legs. Inthc:r - . urnnixa-
tion and thair gtocral luuiita, they are entirely oirtinct
finoa all the Saurian order, and mote nearly reaemble
tbe Aug* aid toadt. They have no true rib* ; they re-
i|rire in tfae annc manner aa the Bairacian* already de>
acribed,and hi moat of ihentheftciindationof the ova
Hke* plaee in a aimilar manner. la a Arw of them. in.
deed, the jaaof art extmdad tnm tbe ova

within the ovidaet of tbe fetaale; and tbe 1;

whkfc tbii fafcee phee aw crilei eeew w/wten*. (n their
mctomorpbcaia, tbe yooflf aalamandera pas* through
die aafly stage* of existence with much the same ap-
pearance* a* we have deacribcd in tbe tadpole of tbe ftw.
except that the number of stagea is ratner Ic**. The
tadpole of the salanunder bonto tbe ovum within ten
days after it ia drefit ftom tbe laodier, and take* about
'ftnr month* to arrive at ita perfect slate, during which
time it subsi*** entiral* on vcntabiea; while in their
perfect state, tbey feed on sniula. worms, and insects.
Tbe number of yong ptodaeed by otic female sala-
mander tumetiuie* amoont* to thirty or forty.

Tbeta aniatala arc Iband In aaest warm cfamatca; and
at least lAteflbamaecnalhrcs of the south of Europe.
Tbev nbaUl tbe banka of ■nAaqoaoied attaaou, moisC
ahadywoaiHanlMgbgMinMb; but are addom seen
euepc daring wet wntber. ThcT^peartoliv«aqoaI!y
vail in the water and «■ land, and tbey twim with
great facility. Daring wintv tbejr lie CBneaaled about
Uwrogiaaf eldtrece, m tbe caeiuaa af old sraUa, or in

HliMiaiai Pit where tbaj aia aoaMtimc* found

twMed Imetber. In ibeir cweral habits, tbey are

wd their paee & iloir.

It was believed by the ancients, and is still a popular BAtrmcua
superstition among the vulgar in most countries, that sa- ^'P"^**- ^
lamanders are not only capable of existing with impunity " ' '~
in fire, but have the jwwer of putting a stop to a con-
siderable conflagration when thrown among the flames.
This absurd idea has perhaps arisen from the fact which
has been observed by Maupertuis, that when one of
tbeae animals is plaoed upon a fire, its whole body
soon become* covered with drops of a milky fluid,
which ooses through the pores of the skin, and quickly
dries upon its surface.

There are about fourteen species, which are thus dis- Species
tinguished.

Spirin I . Salawumdra trrrtstrix. Common salamander. Tettssiria.
Blackish, vari^ated with irregular blackish spot; tail
cylindriod, and a little obtuse.

La SaUmandric lerratre. Daud. viiL p. 321 . pi. xcvii.
fig. I.— Laoepede, ii. part ii. art. 54. pi. viii. fig. I.

Lacrrta taUmtandra, I.inn. a Gmel. p. 1066.

Sclamander, Shaw, iii. pi. Ixxxii.

2. S.atra. Black S. Uniformly bUck without qx>U; Atra.
tail cylindrical and a little obtuse.

La S. moire, Daud. viiL p^ 2S5.

S. 5. rubra. Red S. Red interspersed with nu- Bubn.
merous bbck points, with a blackish streak upon the
belly : hinder feet semipalmated.

I.a S. romge, Daud. viii. p. 227.

4. S. renefioia. Venomous .S. Ground black, with ytagam^
round vellow spots, arranged in a doable row along

the Inrk.

Im S. renimftue, Daud. p. S29.

Laetrta pmnetata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1076.

Jm pomt»fe, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art 56.

5. .^. aUegamiauis. Alleghany S. Larj^e, brown, AUcguiieii-
paler bdow, with a ibortiah comprcased tail, slightly **»•
crested.

Iji .9. del montt aUeganit, Daud. viii. p. 231.

(i. S. CTUtata. Crested S. Blackish above, marked Ciisuta.
below with larn rounded oranga-ooloiired dots ; side*
granulated with white, and dotted with black; tail
compreased ; back of the male furnished with a fim-
uruHva ctvm*

La S. crHft, Daud. viii. p. «3S.

7. .V. raArnra/ru. Orange bellied S. BUck above, BubriTca-
with bmwntsh «pots ; orange below without spots, ex- tri*.
cept a few black dots under the neck.

La S. m vtmire ormagt, Daad. viii p. 239. pL xcviiL
«f. I.

8. S. marmatala. Marbled S. Olive green al>ove, Mannonu.
marbled with brown ; brownish below, with white gra-
nular dola ; tail conipre*aed.

La S. wmrbrit, Daud. viiL p. 941.

9. .v. ahJtmimalu. Abdomtnal S. Olive green above, A>Mi«i<>*-
dotted with ydlow below, with a longitudinal yellowish ^

line fin cadi side of the back ; all the toes separate.

/>a S. ahdoaumalr. Daud. viii. p. 350.

la 8. atSmptt. WeMboted S. Head and arms Pahnipcs.
eellow, slightly dotted with black ; back olive brown ;
beOy yeilowiih ; hind feet psJmated.

La S. palmipede, Daud. viii. p. S5S. pl. xcviii. fig. S. p.

II. 4- eifgant. Elegant S. Head and feet yellow, "^
(lightly dottnl with black ; back ohve ; brlly yellowish;
ail the toes >eparatr, but those of the hind feet lobatcd.

Ijt S. etrganir, Daud. viii. p. S55.

IS. S. pmnctala. Dotted S. Olive ash abbve, yel- Puodau.
low below, every where interspersed with black dots ;
tail very much comyiremrd ; all the toe* separate.

LaS.pcmctmft. ^ . p. 2.57.

13. S. emtta. c Yellowish olive above, '^'•*«*

40

HERPETOLOGY.

StptflM.

TtidactyU.

(lotted yellow below with a white streak ; edged bo-
low with black dots ; all the toes separate.

L. S. ceintur^e, Daud. viii. p. 259.

H. 5. tridactyla. Three-toed S. Fore feet three-
toed ; hind feet tbur-toed.

Im S. Iridacttfle, Daud. viii. p. 261. — Lacep.

Le Lizard tndactyle, Lacep. ii. part ii. art. 59.

Ge.mos V, Proteus. PROTEUS.

paoTEi's Body elongated cylindrical, terminated by a cona-
Ceaiu. pressed tail forming a fin ; tongue short, thick, ad-
hering within the lower jaw ; fore feet furnished with
three toes, and the hinder with two ; all without claws ;
branchiae persistent.
Ansoinui. Species. Proteus anguinus. Serpentine Proteus. Fore
^^ ' feet three-toed ; hind feet two-toed.

Le prole anguillard, Daud. viii. p. 266. pi. xcix.
fig. 1.

Proteus anguinus, Laurenti, Si/nops. Reptil. p. 37.
pl.lL fig.3. — Scopoli, Annates Hist. Nat. vol. v. p. 70.—
Linn, a Gmel. p. 1056, note. — Hermann, Tab. Affini-
tal. Animal. — Schneider, Hist. Ampkib.fascic. i. p. 45. —
Schreiber, Phil. Trans. 1801.

The curious animal for which the present genus has
been constituted, was first observed at the bottom of a
lake in Camiola in Germany, and described in 1768,
by Laurenti, in the work referred to above. It was
afterwards described by Scopoli, and was briefly no-
ticed by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturw, who, how-
ever, considered it as the tadpole of a salamander ; but
the most complete account of the animal has been gi-
ven by Schreiber, a German naturalist, in a memoir of his
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of,
London for 1801. From this account it is now gene-
rally allowed, that the Proteus is to be considered as a
perfect animal, differing from all the other reptiles with
which we are acquainted.

Its general length is about thirteen inches by about
one inch of medium breadth, and the head is nearly
two inches long. It has no external nostrils ; and its
eyes, which are black, and situated towards the base of
the muzzle, are so small as with difficulty to be distin-
guished. The colour of the living animal is a flesh red,
and the gills are scarlet ; but when immersed in spirits
after death, it becomes white. It appears to walk with
difficulty, but swims with great ease. One that was
kept by Baron Zois, lived for about ten days, and du-
ring that time refused all nourishment, and appeared
in a torpid state.

The Proteus undergoes three degrees of metamor-
phosis before arriving at its perfect state. In the two
former, it is blind and without feet.

It is said on certain occasions to utter a sound re-
sembling that made by forcing down the piston of a
syringe.

Two reptiles have lately been noticed by the French
naturalists, bearing a near relation to the Proteus above
described. One has been described by Cuvier under the
name of Axotote Mexicaine, and has four toes on each
fore foot, and five on each hinder. This we might call
Proteus mexicantis. The other is described and figured
by Lacepede, in the tenth volume of the Annaks de
Museum, p. i30. pi. xvii. by the name of Protee tetra-
dactyU, {Proteus tetradactylus,) with four short pointed
toes on each of the four feet. It differs from the Pro-
teus auguinus in having a thicker and shorter body, a
much broader tail, and the legs Larger and shorter.

Genus VI. Siren. SIREN.

Batraclan
Reptiles.

Body elongated, cylindrical, and terminated by a Sieen
compressed tail, forming a fin ; tongue short, thick, and <''""*•
adherent ; fore feet digitated ; no hind feet ; branchiae
persistent.

Species. Siren lacertina. Lacertine Siren. Feet Lacertlna.
four-toed.

La Siren lacertine, Daud. viii. p. 272. pi. xcix. fig. 2.

Siren lacertina, Linn. Amcenit. Academ. vii. p. 311.

Muroena siren, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1136.

Siren lacertina, Shaw's Naturalist's Miscellany, N°20,
pi. Ixi.— Schneider, Hist. Amphib. fascic. i. pi. 48.

The extraordinary reptile which constitutes this last
genus of Batracians was first observed in 1765, by Dr
Alexander Garden, in a fresh water lake near Charles-
town in Carolina, and was described by Linnaeus in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Upsal for that year. He
considered it either as the tadpole of a species of lizard
or salamander, or as a new genus of his order Nantes,
to which he gave the name of Siren. Soon after, Lin-
nea;us placed the Siren in the order of Amphibia, which
he denominated Meantes, from which Gmelin, in his
edition of the Systema Naturce, injudiciously removed
it to the class of Fishes, and considered it as a species
of murcena.

The Siren very much resembles an eel in the general
form of the body and tail. Its mouth is small, and fur-
nished with small sharp teeth, set partly in the palate,
and partly in the lower jaw. Its eyes are very small,
but more evident than those of the Proteus. Its skin
is of a blackish colour, slightly grained and porous,
with a longitudinal white line, extending on each side
from the feet to the tail, and a shorter one along the
middle of the back. The whole length of the animal
sometimes exceeds three feet ; and the feet, which are
small, and composed of a humerus, a fore arm, and four
small pointed toes, furnished with claws, are about an
inch long.

Its tongue is bony, and formed like that of fishes ;
the gills are composed of three fimbriated plates on
each side, are very apparent, and are above half an inch
long. It has a real larynx, and its lungs resemble
those of salamanders. In its metamorphosis from the
ovum to the perfect state, it seems to follow the same
degrees with the Proteus, except that its eyes are sooner
open.

This animal appears to reside entirely in the water,
where it must swim with great facility. It was sup-
posed by Linnaus, from the form of its feet, that it
can also move with tolerable ease upon the land ; but we
believe it has never yet been seen in that situation.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE CCXCV.

Fig. 1. Skeleton of a species of Tupinambis.

Fig. 2. The head of the same animal, a, the inter-
maxillary bone ; b, b, the two superior, or coronal maxil-
lary bones ; c, the nasal bone ; d, one of the zygomatic
arches; e, a supernumerary bone ; J',/', the two sides of
the frontal bone ; ^, the parietal ; h, h, two bony arches
forming the interior border of the temporal fossa ; i, a
small portion of the left basilar jaw; k, the bone with
which this is articulated ; /, I, the occipital bone ; m, its
condyle.
1

H E R P E T O L O G Y.

41

Hey-

ExpUu-
tiaaaf

CCXCY.

Fijf. S. The j»ws of the Nilotic crocodile extended,
•hewing the iBode of their Articulation.

Fig. 4. SCooMch of the comnion land tortoise.

Fig. 5. Stomach of the Garial crocodile, with • portion
of the intestinal canal commencing at a, the pylorus.

Fig. 6. Stomach at the Nilotic crocodile partiv laid
open ; a, a pouch into which the aliments pam before
proceeding out at i, the pylorus.

Fig. 7- Stomach and intestines of the Cli— fleon ;
m, the pglonu ; from a to b, the small intestbie ; 6, the
ooauaeiieemnit of the large intestine.

Fig. 8. Part of the intestines of the land tortoise ;
a 6, a part of the small intestine; 6, the commencement
of the kqm iaiMtioe.

Fig. S>. Tbe rtttim of the Nilotic crocodile iasensibly
rmiieiefing firocn the small intestiiM ; a «, • ralve be-
tWCMI lfa» two.

Fig. 10. fiecsTMi of the Gavial ; a, the termination of
the aaall iataatioe: 6, the rectom; r, a proiectioa from
the small jtwti— into the lar|« far actug aa a valve.

Fig. 1 1. Stw—fii and intwtuiea of the Streo ; a the
lyisnw ; b, the termination of the hepatic doct

Fig. IS. The heart of the crocodile seen on ita lower
mr&ce; aa, the right auricle ; c, the commoa trunk of
the right cuotid and right brachial arteriaa; d, the com-
■en tronk ef the same arterice on the Ml side : e e, the
continnatien of the ricfat posterior aerta ; //, the left
peatarior aorta : g k, tte left and right poJmonary aiv
tariaa ; i il, the pithaoMVjr veins ; », the opening by
which the right aoricb eonaiiinicatcs with ttw kdWar
oanpaataMBi ti the ventricle ; p, an orifice
this rnieuaitiest conmunioates with the
cavity or the vcntride ; q, r, two vai^ee m. the
■MBniiiiiil of the left aorta ; «, (, the trunks of the two
arlariea e and d laid open ; r, the trachea ; tr.iu sob-
diviauue into faranchi ; « v> situation of the lunga.

Fig. li. The heart ortfie crooodBe viewed on its in.
fcrior soHhee, hot a little more to the left asde.

Hera the letters a, e, d, t, f, g, k, refer to the same
part* es fai the preceding figure, b. the left or pufano.
nary aurick; m, a row of toberde* behind ; t, y, the
valvce guarding the entnmoe ef the left pnhnonery ar.
tanr ; t, the ceaamimicatiaa Vrtaasa tha inftriar and
flanwety compartmenta of the ventiide.

Fig. X*. The eroeodilee heart seen on ita upper sur.
where the lettam a. h, e, d, t.J, g, k, t, k, refer
at in the former ((gt
of the ventricle laid

Fig. 1 5. The general appearance of the ova of ftogs,
as extruded from the oviduct.

Fijf. 16. The tadpole of the frog, when only a few
days old.

Fig. 1 7. The tadp(4e of the Surinam frog in that
stage called frng-JUh.

vig,. 1 8. is the under surface of one of the toes of the
Gecko EfyptiacMt, of the natural sise. See p. 29.

Fig 19. Is a toe dissected to shew the appearance of
the pockets on its under surface, their serrated cuticular
edge, the depth of the pockets, and the small muscles
by which they are drawn open, the parts being highly
magnified : a a are the two muscles which lie on the
sides of the booes of the toe, with thuir tendons inserted
into the last bone^ close to the root of the claw. Tliemus.
dee behngiag to the pocket go off from these tendons.

face
to

PLATE CCXCVI.

Ctetoata mydat. Green turtle.
Testudo Grata. Common land tortoise.
Croeodibu NUotiau. Crocodile of the Nile.
Drmemmn. Dragon lisanL
TupimmmMi omahu. Omamentetl tupinambie.
Btuilueut mitrattu. Mitred basilisic.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. .S.

Fig. 4.

Fi?. 5.

Fig 6.

Fig. 7. Ipuata delicatiuima. Common gtuma.

Fig. 8. Vntco volant. Flying dragon.

Plate
CCXCVI.

Fig.

F^

F'lT'
Fig.

dnaae.
Fig.

9.

10.

11.

IS.

IS.

14.

15.

1&

PLATE CCXCVIL

Galoot Agama.

Sbo(t4a!led stellia
Cieir/re mdgmu. Conunon chameleon.
Gaeko Egyfttatm. ^nrptian gecka
ifnaAit iSmatmhtut. Two^awtted anolit.
Lmnria Ummueala. Lacoo Uiard.
Takydromut ttjMmett—. Six-striped taky<

Flat*
CCXCVI t

f(g«rciL /, tiiaap*

Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.
Fig. SO.
Fig. «I.
Fig.«:
Fig. S3.
Fig. 14.

Seimau ^fkmaiiM. Conroon scink.

PLATE CCXCVin.

Sep* ptnladaciytui. Five.toed eft.
Ckaladt* lTidacliilu$. I'hree-toed chalcidcs.
gyfaiaw/er. Two-coloured tna-fiof.
~ I aaradara. Surinam ftog.
mm-tifer. Furinam toad.

' alerrtMrit. Common lalamandcr.
PnUmt amgmmm*. Common protau.
leefrftaa. Laocttjae nren.

Platk
cncviii.

INDEX.

AUTHORS NAMES.

iliiessaa. y. t

Cask. Ik
CavlOT. 4. >4
, 4

mis.*

r.t

t

Home, M, ST

HuSBhol*. ♦

IntsB4, SI P1ID7. t

M«SHs4kss th* <n- m»j. fk.

\**

Index.

INDEX OF GENERA. AND RE.MARKABLE CIRCUMSTANCES

n
tt

Agmw AadaU, iki

■a*1(alH(a, A.
g—aisii. IK
|ailaia.ta.

hiHsauDia. n

n

IT

4t

HERPETOLOGY.

Index. Aguna ptragnendt, Rb

—ry ■■' plic«. lb

prehensilis* 88

roncauda, i1

■cutata, ib.

ttellaris, ib.

(upcrciliosa, ib.

versicolor, ib.

umbra, 27

undulata, ib.

uralensis, ib.

banded, ib.

black, ib.

clouded, ibb

common, ib.

dotted, 88

cared, ih.

forlc-headcd, 27

galcot, ib.

harlequin, ib.

marbled, 28

platted, 27
^ rose- tailed, ib.

rough, ib.
starred, ib.

star-gazing, ib.

yellow-throated, ib.
Ameivas, 31
Anolii genus, 30

auratus, ib.

bimaculatus, ib.

bullaris, ib.

dotted, ib.

carbonarius, ib.

charcoal-coloured, ib.

gilded, ib.

gouty, ib.

lineatus, ib.

podagricus, ib.

punctatus, ib,

red-throated, ib.

spitting, ib.

sputator, ib.

striped, ib.

two-spotted, ib.
Axolate Mexicaine, 40

B.

Basiliscus genus, 24

amboinensis, tS
mitratus, ib.
Basilisk tribe, 24

amboina, 25.
mitred, ib.
Batracian order, 6, 35
Bufo genus, 37

agua, 39

albonotatus, 38

Bengaiensis, ib.

bombinus, 37

calamita, 38

cinereus, 37

cornutus, 39

cursor, 38

cyanophlytis, 39

dorsiger, 38

flaviventris, 37

fuscus, 38

gtbbosus, ib.

gutterosus, ib.

horridus, ih.

humoralis, ib.

Isvis, ib.

lineatus, ib.

margaritifer, ib.

musicus, ib.

obstetricansi ib.

ovalis, ib.

panamensis, 37

roeselli, 38

Ecaber, ib.

semilunatus, ib.

spinipes, ib.

spinosus, ib.

Bufo Surinamenils, ib.
ventricosus, ib.
viridis, ib.
vulgaris, 3T
C.
Chalcides genus. 34

four-toed, 34
grooved, ib.
monodactylus, ib.
one-toid, ib.
propus, ib.
tetradactylus, ib.
three toed, ib.
tridactylus, ib.
Cbameleo genus, 28
bifidus, 29
pumilus, ib.
Senegalensis, ib.
vulgaris, 28
Chameleon tribe, ib.

common, ib.
dwarf, 29
two-forked, ib.
Chelonia genus, 5, 16
caouana, 6, 18
caretta, 16, 18
cepediana, 16
coriacea, 17,19
my das, 16, 17
rugosa, 16
Chelonian order, 5, 16
Chclys fimbriate, 19
Cordylcs, 28
Crocodile tribe, ib.

broad.beaked, 24
caiman, 23
common, ib.
long-beaked, ib.
Mississippi, 24
narrow-beaked, 23
Nilotic, ib.
yacare, ib.
Crocodilus genus, ib.
acutus, 24
arctirostris, 23
biporcatus, 24
biscutatus, ib.
caiman, 23
galeatus, 24
Gangeticus, ib.
latirostris, ib.
longirostris, ib.
lucius, ib.
Mississippiensif , ib.
Niloticus, 23
palpebrosus, 34
rhombifer, ib.
sclerops, ib.
tenuirostris, ib.
trigonatus, ib.
vulgaris, ib.
■^ yacare, 23

D.
Dracsena genus, 24

Guianensis ib.
Draco genus, 26
fuscus, ib.
lineatus, ib.
viridis, ib.
volans, Lin. ib.
Dragon tribe, 24

flying, brown, 26
green, ib.
radiated, ib.
E.
Eft tribe, 34
five-toed, ib.
gronovian, ib.
one-toed, ib.
sheltapusik, ib.
schneiderian, ib.
three-toed, ib.
F.
Frog tribe, 36

Frog arunco, 37
bull, 36
blue, 35
common, 36
croaking. 35
dotted, 36
esculent, ib.
eye-!»potted, ib.
gibbi>us, ib.
green, ib.
grunting, 37
hurricane, 36
noisy, ib.
paradoxical, 37
pitpit, ib.
plaited, ib.
reddish, ib.
spotted, ib.
Surinam, 37
tigrine, ib.
typhon, 36
yellow, 37
tree tribe, 35

black-spotted, 36
banded, 35
blochian, 36
blue, 35
brown, ib.
croaking, ib.
dotted, 36
eye streaked, ib.
fiute, ib.
flank-striped, 3
four-streaked, 35
green, ib.
hypochondrial, ib.
marbled, 36
milky, 35
mixed-coloured, ib.
orange, 25
palmated, 36
red, ib.
stained, ib.
Surinam, 36
thigh-spotted, 35
two-striped, ib.
two- coloured, 35
veined, 36
variegated, 35
warty, 36
yellow-rumped, 35
G.
Gavials, 23, 24
Gecko genus, 29

segyptiacus, ib.
banded, 30
cristatus, ibw
common, ib.
fascicularis, ib.
dotted, 29
fimbriatus, 30
guttatus, 29
Isevis, ib.
porphyreus, ib.
rapicauda, 30
sarroubea, ib.
spinicauda, 29
spinetailed, ib.
squalidus, ib.
8urin.imensis, ib.
triangular, 30
triedrus, ib.
tuberculosus, ib.
turnip-tailed, ib.
vittatus, ib.
Geckot, common, ib.
Guana tribe, 26
blue, ib.
common, ib.
horned, ib.
H.
Hyla genus, 35
aurantiaca, ib.
bicolor, ib.

Hyla biUneata, 35

blochiana, 36 v

boan!<, 35

cyanea, ib.

femoralis, ib.

frontalis, ib.

fusca, ib-

hypochondrialis, ih.

intermixta, ib.

lactea, ib.

lateralis, ib.

marmorata, 36

melanorabdota, iU

ocularis, ib.

palmata, ib.

punctata, ib.

quadrilineata, 35

rubra, ib.

squirella, ib.

surinamensis, 36

tibiatrix, ib.

tinctoria, 35

variegata, ib.

venulosa, ib.

verrucosa, 3G

viridis, 35
I.
Tguana genus, 26
cocrulea, ib.
cornuta, ib.
delicatissima, ib.
L.
Lacerta genus, 30

agamoy Linn. 27
agilis, 32
cdgira, Linn. 33
aUigator, Linn. 23
amboinertsis, Linn. 25
ameiva, 31
anguina, Linn- 34
angulaiu, Linn. 27
apoda, Linn. 34
arenicola, S2
argus, 31
arguta, 33
autUa, Linn. 28
basUiacus, Linn, 25
bilineata, 31
bimacvlatat Linn. 30
bullaris, Linn. 30
bicarinatOf Linn. 25
bipes, Linn, 34
bosquiana, 31
brongniardi, 33
caudiverbera, Linn. 30
calotes, Linn. 27
cocruleo-cephala, 31
cordyliu, Linn. 28
crocodilus, Linn. 23
ckameleon, Linn. 29
cruenta, Linn. 33
deserti,

dractena, Linn. 34
dumetorura, 31
erythrocephala, ib.
fusca, 32

gangeticuy Linn. 23.
gecko, Linn. 29.
graphica, 31
guttata, Linn. 28
gutturosa, 31
helioscopa, Linn. 27
jamaicensis, 31
iguana, Linn. 26
intirpunctata, Lifin, 33
laurentii, 32
lemniscata, 31
Icpida, 32
litterata, 31
maculata, 'ii
marmorata, Linn. 28
maurttanica, Linn. 10
monitor, Linn. 25
Qcellata, 31

Index.

HER FETOLOGY.

Iod«x.

R«na, nrmuta. Lion. 38
CMTulcnU, 38
giUota, Linn. 3S
gnioDims, ST
h«lcciaa,36
UmtmfifUa, Lipa. 35
0« Umu 98j

ib.

Beptiles< cuuneout mtucle*, 14
chuig* of ikiD, iU
ganeraliaii In, ik
mate a>|UM, ib.
female orguM, ib.
• , 15

38
m«iMa, Lisa. Ihi
aec1UU,a6
pandou. ST

pi|iiMw,M
pU<Mi..ib.
.lb.
I ih>.
a, lb.
.ST
liCmiM. ib.
t}|*<Mla.9«
ttmlriemm, Llaa. 38
•raWaM, Linn. 34.
Rrptilo, (vncral ricw of, I

rclatiana of, to oibcr

anloula, Ih.
gtaanl arraogtowBt

er.«

I of, ib.
bybtnutioii in, ib.
8.
Salamander tribe, 39

abdemiaal, ib.
aUesbany, ib.
k.ib.
ib.
created, iXL
doltrd, lb.
•I<(aal, ib.
■ilM.ibb
SMrMad* &
orange-bclilcd, ilv
red, ib.

,40
.3*
>ib>.

Miaaul tMinmUf, ib.

pei*>^f

Mcral astnaitj, IW

' I of. lb.

> i>. T, 8

nktitik.

fubilffancriii tb
l«rrMria,ib.
IrtdMljrIa, 40

,S1

1 1*, a^

MMll.*

, lb.

laClk.

10

qulo^udinealii*, ib.
arbneidaril, lb.
It.ik

lb.

•d^iittt.SS

s::^

««iaaar, IS

RaMi

.Mb

a%lM.aBwkad, lb.
ayi if >iid. ib.
l*«4lrMked. ib.
ftnir-etraakcd, ib.
lall^waap, Ib.
gianl. lb.
aaboujra, IU
sAcinal, lb.
ridcad.lb.
», lb.

,»

4$

Scinic, tUigogu, ib.

threc-atrealied, ib. ^

t«04<mked, ib.

Tariegated, S4
Sepi geoui, 34
gronoTii, ib.
monodactylui, ib.
pentadaetylut, ib.
•heltopunk, ib.
•chneiderii, ib.
tridactjiiu, ib.
Siren genu*, 40

laeettioa, ib.
Stellio genus, 38

aiurea, ilk

black, ib.

brevicauda, ib.

broad-tailed, ib.

eordjrlua, ib.

common, ib.

nigcr, lb.

pelluma, ib.

platiiniaf lb.

qnalspallo, ib.

•bort-l^cd. lb.

apina-fooMd. ib.
Tulgaria, lb.
T.
Takjrdromua genua, 3S

quadrilineatui, ib.
iex-lin«alu(, ib.
Takjrdromc tribe, SS

fotir-Mreaked, il>.
ilx.«(nakcd, iU
Tapaya, tT
TaMndo fnms, IB

ilnwidi. to
IU. <I
19
Lib.

tl

ib.

*0
itrata, lb,

IK
l.«l
dMMkalaU, lb.
MrfenUei.lt

fudata. ib.
feros, 19, 1 1
tara. 19
gslaau, to
■MMtrles.ll
ClaUaMa. to
giaaaUla, 19
graca, tl, tt
tmMemU Linn. It
indka, f 1
jurenctUa, tl
lutcola, tl, tt
lutaria. tO
linau, tl
nelU. t<)
aia. 19

, Una. It
• IT

.to

. ib.
peaa^lvanlea, Ib.
trtiewUru, Llrm. 1»
pleta,tO
|wty|ib— ■, tl

a, ib,

rctkuUU. to
nttrala, 19

.to

ladn.

44

TettudOj leorpioides, tt
scripla, ib.
^^■rpeitjna, 19
teiiata, 80
spengleri, 19
squamata, 21
subnigra, 20
(iibrufa, ib.
tabulata, 21
Iricai'inata, 20
verrucosa, ib.
virgulata, ib.
Toad tribe, 37

accoucheur, 38

bengal, ib.

brown, ib.

blue>warted, 39

brazilidD, 39

calamite, 38

cinereous, 37

common, ib.

courier, 38

gibbous, ib.

green, ib.

homed, 39

horrid, 38

humid, ib.

inflated, ib.

marine, ib-

musical, ib.

natteijack, 37

HERPETOLOGY.

Toad, OTal, 38

panama, 37

pearly, 38

roesellian, ib.

rough, ib.

semilunated, ib.

shoulder-linot, ib.

smooth, ib.

spine-footed, ib.

spinous, ib.

striped, ib.

Surinam, ib.

Surinam dwarf, ib.

swelled-throated, ib.

white-spotted, ib.

yellow-bellied, 37
Tortoise tribe, 19

amboyna, 20
areolated, 21
banded, 21
beaked, 19
blockheaded, SO
blackish, ib.
bordered, 21
cafre, 21
Carolina, 20
Caspian, ib.
cirrbated, 19
close, 20
concentric, ib.
coui, 21

Tortoise, denticulated, ib.
dotted, 20
dwart, 21
elegant, ib.
euphratian, 19
fierce, 19, 21
geometrical, 21
gopher, ib.
hel meted, 20
juvcncula, 21
indian, ib.
inlaid, ib.
land, 21, 22
manuscript, 20
martinclla, ib.
matamata, 19
mud, 20, 22
odorous, 20
painted, ib.
pennsylvanian, ib-
porphyry, ib.
reddish, ib.
reticulated, ib.
rough, ib.
scaly, 21
scorpion, 20
serpentine, 19
serrated, 20
shagreen, 19
spenglerian, ib.
spotted, 21

Tortoise, striped, 20

three-ridged, ib.
two-spined, 21
warty, 20
yellow, 19
yellowish, 21
Tortoises, fo&sil.
Tortoise shell, structure of, 1 4
Trionyi genus. Geoti'. 19
Tupinambis genus.

albigularis, iS

bengalensis, ib.

cepedianus, ib.

elegans, ib.

exanthematicus, ib.

griscus, ib.

indicus, ib.

lacertinus, ib.

maculatus, ib.

monitor, ib.

niluticus, ib.

ornatus, ib.

stellatus, ib.

variegatus, ib.
Turtle tribe, 16

coriaceous, 17, 19

esculent, 17

green, ib.

hawksbilU 18

loggerhead, ib.

mediterranean, ib.

Index.

DTernng,
Hertford.

HER

HERRING. See IcHTHyoLOOY.

HERRING Fi.sHEnv. See Fisheries.

HERTFORD Town, in the hundred of Hertford, in
Hertfordshire, is pleasantly situated 21 miles north from
London, on the river Lea, which is navigable for bar-
ges to the town. The streets are chiefly neat and clean,
and the houses well built. It contains two parish
churches j a handsome sessions house, in which the as-
sizes for the county are held ; a market house and town
hall, in which are kept the quarter sessions and county
courts J and a county gaol and penitentiary house, built
on Mr Howard's plan. The most important public se-
minaries for education consist of the East India College,
for the education of youth destined to fill the various
offices in the civil departments in India ; and a large
school belonging to Christ's Hospital in London, where
about 500 of the younger children are kept prior to
their being sent to the metropolis. Hertford returns
two members to Parliament. The right of election is
vested in the inhabitants who do not receive alms ; and
in sueh freemen only as, at the time of their being
made free, were inhabitants of the borough. Their
number is about 700. The only article of consequence
manufactured here is malt, by which, and the large
quantities of com and wool sent down the river to
London, the inhabitants are principally supported.

In 673, a synod was held at Hertford, and King Al-
fred here built a castle, by means of which the Danes,
who had come up the Lea from the Thames, were
destroyed. On the site of the ancient castle the pre-
sent one, now the East India College, was erected in
the time of Charles I. The manor of Hertford belong-
ed to the Crown from 1 345 till the sixth year of Charles
I., when it was granted to William Earl of Salisbury,
whose descendant, the present marquis, is now owner
of it. In the 25th year of the reign of Elizabeth, and
afterwards in the 34th and 35th of the same reign, the
Michaelmas term was adjourned from London to this

HER

town, on account of the plague then raging in the me- Hcrtiotd.
tropolis. ^"■""Y""'

At Haileybury, in the parish of Amwell, in the vi-
cinity of the town of Hertford, and about 19 miles
from London, is situated the East India College. This
site was chosen by the directors of the East India Com-
pany, when they formed the determination of aban-
doning the grand and extensive plan of a college at
Calcutta, sketched out and partly begun by the Mar-
quis of Wellesley during his administration of India.
The object of both institutions is to give a suitable edu-
cation to those persons who are meant to occupy civil
employments under the company in India.

"The college near Hertford was instituted in April
1805, and the foundation stone of the building was
laid on the 12th of May 1806. The beauty of the
building, the fineness of the situation, the salubrity of
the air, and the object of the institution, render it an
object of considerable interest. The college is capable
of accommodating above 100 students, and rather more
than thirty, on an average, are annually sent from it
to India. According to the plan of the institution,
young men are received when they have completed
their 15th year, and they continue at the college till
they are 1 8, or till the court of directors shall deem it
proper to send them to their respective destinations.
A nomination to the college, on the part of the court,
is equivalent to an immediate appointment. The stu-
dents are instructed by courses of lectures, nearly on
the plan pursued at the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. The college coimcil, under whose direc-
tion and authority the institution is more immediately
placed, consists of a principal and several professors.
Besides the general superintendance of tlie college, it
is the duty and office of the principal more especially
to watch over the moral and religious conduct of the
students, to instruct them in the principles of ethics
and natural theology, and in the evidences, doctrines.

1

HER 45 HER

^ datia* tt mvhIhI niigMB. BmMw, he, as well nMnner, to th«t it* shape on the westorn side is rendered Hwtfw^

as mdi o^lhv fnhmon m are in htij ardefB, prncfa atmncly irr^ular by projections and indentures. It ._ ''\^,-

in tlw coBm ihifit TIm principal w aMJatrd in tha i* situated between the panllels of 51' ST, and 52* 5' ~ ^ ~

anmMtJamMti^ eaUwa bj thadana, who is an- North Latitude. Its greatest length may be reckoned

BaaB* ckaaaa Awn aaMa^tta clerical wanilim ot' (he at 25 miles, and its breadth Trom north to south at S5

MUMvaMnciL miles. Aoootdinfr to Halley , it contains 45 1 ,000 acres ;

TCb latfniwa at the ptoftsaors are aiaiged onder but according to the poor* rate returns, only .885,000.

Ihar ImmK ▼>>• ariealBl Muntare : 1st, Practieal in- his aBsong the aaallest counties in England. The

iMacUuD JatiwiaJhaala of the oriental lai^i^jaa. aa» gaoMalaipecCflf this county is pleasant The northern ^*" " *'*

madky Iha AraMr. Fmw^t, IIjiiiIiKmii. aamcrit. pait ia the awat hiUy. fainii^ a soatleied part of the """'n-

■ad llMMalaa Id, A eaane at lectarca t» iUaamia dMlkir rid^, which aataads acRMa the kingdom in this

tka iMtaiT, caaMaa,«al MBBMnaf tlMpaoflaaf Iiw itiiai Iw A taana of high groand atiatches oat from

dfe. hi tfcaaa two iliyliaiKi liwaa ia a pf efaaaar fcr tha aaiglAaarlMod of King* Langlcjr, tswaitk Bark.

Aa toigaaf . a profaaaar of Hfadoe KMaabir^ and of hampatead and Tring. Another elevated ridge com.

tfM Walaay af Am, two aaiataMa who ai« Mtiiis of aMoeaa at St Albana. «m1 proceeds in a northeni di«

ttw bat, and a Fsite writiw aHaMr. Tharaiaalao ractioa tawaids MaritaC StaaaC A number uTstiaaaii

a niter and nmrSlhr in tha wiMMal daiiMiaiiiH. takathatrriMaaaatkiarfdo of the county.

Undartka wilwdaw aiikiiil aMJIawalka awl H*rtfaidihiia natriBi 1 eoanty town. Haitlbrd ; 8 Towos. 4c.

II luhilaiapfcy.ihrwkschtliaaaawtwwpufciiiiii. kandrada; Ipnaritattawaa; IWnariakes; rvtums 6

Tfc- Itiilki-iliiaipiiiii tlaaial Mdjanaial klaia awhwalM awKMnanf. ris ? frr tf r &'t "" - " — •

taia, farwkiah tkata arc two paaftaaan. Tkaiiailk ftid,andtfcr St Albani; and is in the province o^

kaad eaaipriMa a course of lactana on mmtbI palitjr, CaaMibaiy, and diaaaia of London. Tkara aaa no

and on tfca lawa af fiaghaai, and tfca tiiliiii|ilii of tka placaa of any w aaiiuwiri in it beaidca Heftfimi, 8t

BriMianMilatiantacaanoafkctafaaangaMBilkia- Albana, Boyalon, and Ware.

tarf, and aa tka kialarjr and slaiistica af tka aariana «f Moat af tka eounty is enclosed ; and hi consequence Hcdgr-

■adatn Baaapv ; and a eaani aflaetataa aa peBliad of iia kan^ vary ill tituaiad for ooab. the old hedges "**■

aaaaaaqr. Far tkaaa aakjida tkwa ara twa paaAaaaa^ ara araij> wk^ia filled with oak, ash, sallow, tec Inde*

of ilia waed tkaa distributed in hcd^rowa,
, a liariiar, in canaidatable ooanttty, is spread

Tharalkga yaarfadkrMaJfcHataat— sof twanty orar asaij nart af tka eoanty. Inr preTailing aofls Soil.

iwafca aack. wiak a aa— r waaatJaa af aigkt waifci, aaalaaaaaadclqr, hi gaaetal not of a very fertile qua-

ami a winter aacatfan af Ikar waAak Tka pahiipal Uty. Tka valea, kowarar, tkroagh which the rivrrt

aaaaunatien takaa plaaa piniiiaa la tka wialv «aaa> aoid bfauha law, ara eontpaasd ofa rich sandy kmm.

dot. aad eanlinnaa tkaw vacka. It ia tanaiaalad br Tka awat paadacttva aaii of this naturo is on uie west

• ^Martian of tka caa*C afdiMctora, wkan tka laank aida af tka liaar Loa. Tka principal clay diatrict ia on

af tkaaaaaainatiaw is aiawaliii by tha arkniaal, hi ■•• tka aaitk iMt on Esaas aide. In the pariahas of

pwaiiMalafcaaaakiniii oftkaiiiairriwariti Naatk Mkiv. Aa. tka gaaaaal daaiiipiiuii of aafl ia

af aadi aladaai. Tk«a Man aaa katid ki tka pab> aatifali fcananb Tka ckalky aafl pritaBi on tka

MewtaHiaf^kaiiipi ij. Otkar B«a aaa aha ^van aatik tida af tka eoanty. The ka«. kalaad, of tka

liy*MMrik|gaialaii*a viawoftkaaaadnetaMlpaalk wkala af Haitlbidskirr is chalk intewntiadwitkagiaat

' af aaA alaHim. Priaea cf baafca, wmMt, *« ^P""^ of BkNn The iandad paaparty is grratly

I af aapariai «— "». "ra f^f"*/ g**— If dividadCkiaanaaqaamaof tka vieiMy oTthametropo.

Kaarjf ittMMt faing ta tadia, camaa Iia.

Mas a cattiiaaaa andar tka talfigi saal, aWaating Tha principal rivart ara tha Laa. tka Rib, the Quin, RWcn.

hiaaMri— — akaaabaan dart^kis iiailwiril and tka Cobia Tka Laa aniara ikia caantv nmr

■k, andtnaersaa it iaa dkvatiaa tHarly fram

fa teoi. HettAad centafaMil «IS kaaaaa. aad S960 aartk-waat ta aoath aaai. to ito flanflaanaa with tha

In ten, ika fmalBliiiii akaliact fava aa Man, afkar which it rans naariy saatfK washhtg the

tasraa af IhiUhiilaad M^way ftwa tkeUstofwhirh it

Hooaaa i-«««»>i«tT' 5nt ** ■■»%■•* *• *!>• Tkanaa. It eolleris. in iu ooorse,

^^ all tka atiaaii of tka naftkam and aaaiem parta of the

fqfff aaanty. TkaBlk, wkiek rises in tkis county, joint

Pfi^j,, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ |ggg tka Lea between Hertfar«l aixl U'arr : the f^in also

*'*'******'* tiaaa ki tkia caanty, and falls into the Rib. The C«ilnc

fjtal . SfOO ***** *'*' Mli rad, in Middlewx ; and. after uniting

aariaaa saaanw an the soutlwwcatcm side, conveys

8M Aitkar YoaMTa itonaallarr «f ntrtfwriilth* , dtan aat af tka aa«Ny near Bickmaaaworth. In one

Aaatiia af Caglanf aad H'afa*, *al. t. ; Lyaen's Em. part of ita caaiae. near Cohiay Park, it has a short on.

mnmtftfmioa. («• s.) damiaand aaaa^e, tkaagfc not particularly obsansMc,

HClrrPORDSHIRE IS an inland ceonty ti Eng. eaeapl krdiry weether. The nine aistcr^nikige of the

land, boaadad by Badiadiliiia aiiJ Ciiatiilr%aJyia la- Cfeai, and the springs which cwiatitma Hw aooitc of

wards the nartk and waat. War Mnak— kin wwds ihi tka New River, are m Haitfoctlakira. Tke grand Csaalk

waat. Basaa laaaida ika it. idMUiBaaaa lawwdi tka jaactian taaat ■iiaii tMaaaaa^ abeaa Daihlwniiiaiaad,

aaath. Ito liHdlianp>indpaByafliidal.«fscentanlbe aadlaaeaa hfeBawnigtke ooanr ^'' <' Inc. The

aBaifcaM<,whefaitlaaiy—ii ndttaasBaawbyUwrlTers Wartbtd caaal aaanancaa near of W.t.

Laaaalftaa*. FranBaianrlaBaManiitkallMaBdBlaaH, fiad, nkaia it aailM with tke grami junction, and jroes

MM Of Ike fonr naiaaii MgPkena tmmm^ Iknmp tka la St Albaajr.

IslaMl. divides tke caontiaa af CaaifcaUja aanl ilaatffia il. Fanw a«a ki gaoeial amaU. Pnhapa the rice moat Arkol-

HliiMnwa«l witkfcgkikiMkMM fei«ikV>Ur noHMAialMiiaOtoMOMTCa. The priadpfl p^n ton.

Hertford -

shire

ploujth.

46 HERTFORDSHIRE.

Hertford- of the land is under tillage, and the produce in wheat, whiclj, after being malted in the towns above mention- Hertford-

^^j^** barley, and oits, is very consiflerable. Wheat and bar- ed, is sent to London chiefly by the na\'igati(-n of the _ "^.^

"""^ ley in particular are grown here of as good a quality as I.ea. There are very few manufactures in Hertford- ~ ' ~

in any other part of the kingdom. In the neighbour- sliire of any consequence : at St Albans tlierc is a small

hood of Wheathampstead, great quantities of wheat cotton manufactory, and two silk-mills. The niachi-

have been trown for a very considerable length of time, nery of the latter is particularly well contrived. At

whence this place takes its distinctive appellation. In- l^erkhampstead fringe lace is made ; and also a consi-

deed, in the opinion of many, Hertfordshire was dis- derable quantity of wooden shovels, bowls, spoons, &c.

tinguished tor tiie excellence of its tillage husbandry. In this, and some other parts of the county, plaiting

even before Norfolk. Turnips and clover are supposed straw is a resource for poor women and children. At

to have been intro<luced in tlie time of Cromwell, who, Watford there are some silk mUls, one of which is

it is said, gave iSlOO a year, on that account, to a far- worked by the waters of the Colne ; the rest by horses,

mer of the name of Howe. Even the judicious ciiltiire In 1803 the poor rates amounted to £71,291 : in 1815, Poo"-rate».

and a))plic»tion of tares were practised in this county they had increased to £98,380.

upwards of 80 years ago— at a period when they were There are several antiquities of great interest in this Antiquities.
scarcely known in any other part of England. It county. The British City of Verulam, on the site of
does not seem, however, that the arable liusban;lry of which St Albans stands, is of greater antiquity than ev-
Hertford.siiire has improved much latterly ; and the kind en London itself; and, under the dominion of the Ro-
of pliiiigh still in general use, will, with many, be deem- mans, acquired the dignity and privileges of a munici-
eil a proof of this remark. This plough, known by the pium. In the vicinity of this place Caesar defeated Cas-
name of the great Hertfordshire wheel plough, though sivellaunus ; Boadicea conquered and massacred 70,000
of trreat merit and utility in breaking up strong flinty Romans and Britons ; and two bloody battles were
fallows in a dry season, ought certainly to be dispen- fought between the rival houses of York and Lancaster
sed with in all the other operations of husbandry ; and, in 1455 and 14Cl. The field of Barnet, between St
even for that purpose, it might be constructed in such Albans and London, was also the scene of a bloody
a manner as to do its work with more ease to the hor- battle in the destructive wars of the two houses, which
ses. It is excessively heavy, and so ill formed that it proved decisive in favour of Edward IV., his great
will not move in its work one yard without the plough- foe, the Earl of Warwick, surnamed the king-maker,
man. The plough-shares alone weigh from 50 to 70 being there slain in 1471. During the Saxon heptar-
Ibs. chy, this county was partly in the kingdom of the East

Grasslands. The grass-lands of Hertfordshire, compared with Saxons, and partly in Mercia. The king of the latter

those under tillage, are very trifling : in fact, it may resided in a castle at Berkhampstead. At this place a

be said that there is no grass district in it, except a ve- parliament was held in 697> and the laws of Ina were

ry narrow margin in the south line, in the vicinity of published. William the Conqueror here swore to pre-

Barnet, which, being near London, is made artificially serve the laws made by his predecessors. King Henry

productive, by means of manure brought by the hay II. kept his court here, and granted it all the liberties

carts. There are, however, some tolerably good mea- and privileges which it had engaged under Edward

dows, especially those on the Stort, extending from the Confessor ; and so lately as the reign of James I. the

' Hackerell to Hertford, and those in the vicinity of the royal nursery was established here. Upon a hill in
Lea, and about Rickraansworth. The many streams Harborough field, near Ashwell, are evident marks of
tliat flow through the county are extremely favourable a Roman fortification, (now called Ardbury Banks), a
to irrigation, though that system is not carried to any large square work enclosed with a trench or rampart,
great extent. In the south-west corner of the county Here the Romans had a standing camp, so advantage-
are many orchards. Apples and cherries are their ously situated, that they could discover the approach
principal produce. even of a small body of men at a great distance. Se-

Cattlc and As the land in this county is chiefly arable, and the veral Roman coins and earthen vessels have been dug

sheep, artificial grasses are cultivated almost entirely for hay up here at different times.

for the London market, live stock is an object of very In 1801 there were 18,172 houses in this county. Population,

inferior consideration. The Suffolk breed of cattle is and 97,577 inhabitants. In 1811, it appears, from the

regarded as the best. The sheep are mostly ewes of population abstract, that there were —

the Southdown and Wiltshire breeds. The horses are ,, • , i • j

of various kinds, but the Suffolk punch appears to be Houses inhabited . 26,345

preferred. Families inhabiting them ...... 22,744

The principal roads in Hertfordshire, in consequence Houses building . > . . . 131

of its vicinity to the metropolis, are very good. Six ' — — ""'nhabited ......... 436

great leading turnpikes pass through this small district. Families employed m agriculture . . 1 1,998

Many of the cross roadS are nearly as good as the turn- '"'? • ■ ■ ■ • 7,192

pi|(es, ° other lines . . 3,554'

Thegreatbusinessof the county is the traffic of com. Males cr'«f^

and the malting trade. The latter is carried on to a Females 50,031

very great extent in the towns of Hitchin, Baldock, ^ ,.,.,.. TTTTT"

Roy ston, and Ware. Ware alone sends a greater sup- 1 otal inhabitants 111,054

I)ly of malt to London than any other place ; and it al- The following is the statistical state of the county in

ways obtains the highest price, not only on account of 1811 :

the excellence of the barley from which it is made, but Area in square statute miles 528

also from the excellence of the mode in which it is ma- English statute acres 337,920

Malt. nufactured. The Hertfordshire malt, however, is not Rental of land £342,350

all made from barley grown in the county ; large quan- Amount of tithe 45,292

Uties bemg purchased in all the surrounding districts, Annual value of a square mile 735

Roads.

Trade and
manufac-
ture*.

H E S 47

Nmnber of penoni in • (quare mile til

AfrrtrultunI population in centesimal parU . 5S
Net product per fiunflj 8t

H ! ~ one «f the earliest Greek poet*. Little

it kii i-> Wk, and the few tacts that have reach-

ed ■• iM*« oecMioned marh controversy among the
lavnad. It appaar* that hi* father Dius had origi-
aally rwideJ at Cama, a town of jfvolia in Asia Minor,
whrnoa ha afterwarda removed to Aacra, now Zagara,
■tuated ina valicjr o( Mount Melicon. (See Helicon and
Oarkc^a TVaacb, part u. aect. iii p. 1 19 ) It is uncer-
tain whether Heaiod icrii— piliit nis father from Cuina,
or wat bora at Aacn. Tm latter is perhana the more
pnhehie cendwioo. In one of hia poema he mcntians
• ahoit revacc to tlw iale of Eubcea, a* the only ocm-
•ioa on wniai he had ever been on ahipboerd ; bat if
he had oonw frooi Cana, he nraat have ooascd by tea
) Graeee. It ia true, in the peaage elloded to, he
I at hie nanlical espefioDoe, hot die alSnnation ia
1 it may be anppetid. had there been
mj eseeptaon, that eicaptJoB would either have been
or the expnaaien BMdified. There ia anather
1 in (kvanr of Aacn, givw by Phtarch on
ity of Ephema, the MNorian of Onna, who
Diaa had bean eompellfd '-■ — 'Trate to
Aaoa,eaaeeanBtefdeht,aBdth«Mn. nacde

the ■Hihar af Hoaed. What waa Hcuxi • ,k- upetion
ia uncertain. La Harpe, in hi* Coar* tU Liltrmtmrt,
to hare bean a prieat of theTannWaf
Olhera kaee arfit ihii t. that, awwdtiif te
tn hia Theogenf, he tended thean hi the
eaUaaaaTHeliean; a aode of Kfe, it haa been tboMht,
d mmt camgtnial to the bard of fina-
iitienidl,aa the writer af the Thee,
i reeaan appUee with eqaal <brre in Ik-
e«nr af hia eecaidrtal preftwiiai. Pram the pictw* of
the Maaa praiantii^ him with a level bnMieb, Mr
Ehon infoa. with Pkanuriaa, that he waa not a min-
b«t a rhanaediat, aid *■« or recitad to
of the tjrre." He b fcpotted to
9t the petae Awn HoMer at a poetic^
That he won a eootnted prtae fat Babom. w
I in Ma paea ofthe ITerie and Utofw, tmmat tM.
•aablybedonbtnl: bat that he vnqdahed Heaer
km bam )hiI« raofdad aa a Ictian of tatar time*.
Hanad ia naiad <br longeritv. bw it b naccttain whe>
Hht ha waa pwlMad «a die a natand death. Then
ia a tndilian Aat he waa ■awlwid at Awe. en a piU
fliMfa ta the IMpfaie orade, by the aon of hia host
CWetar. GMjrecer hariac antertdhiad Hanod,
a IfflHiiB, Ui falow nai JU, and Ma <hM(ht«T
via( bean riilaliil hi the ni(iK, laylriua feO
Aa <fad bawl, who, witfaontfiirther ewwauiij, was pal
la daHb by Hm brathere, and duvwn hrto the aea.
Tha body baiaf cart on ahore, ar, aa 6etion will haee
««,

hia da^
thuwHfQ in

The era of Hesiod ia still BKire doabtlal than hia
bntb-plaea. Sane aathot*. m QaiaiilMii. Hciaaina.
I lipiini. jfiea Was a fnaMr miqwitjr than

H E S

The attempts to decide the question of pri-
ority, from philological critici^im and astroi'Omir.il cal»
culations, are e<|ually vairne nnd ineffiectual. 1'lir' in-
ference in fa%-our of Homer, which has been drawn
from his use of the word f^irrx for law, when He^iod
employs m«w»<i allejjeil to be of more recent oricin. is
of no force, as Mr Eltmj justly n-iuarki, " unless we
suppoae that Homer « poriti* cont lincd every word in
the language " The inpenimis argument of Dr Sauniel
Clarke, on the »ame side, with reifard to the quuuity
of ««A*(, of which in Homer the first syllHhlt- is long,
while Hesiixl varies it at pleasure, ami of •rw^i,,.. the
penult of which in Hoin«*r is long, and «hort in Ht~>iiKl,
is acarcely more aaceeaaAil. The difference of Io<-ility,
of dialect, and more partictilarly the very (-oiisiderable
aHirationa which the original ))oems have uMnifestly
undergone since tli>. ir tojli^ioii an<l umngemfnt, do
not aamit of »i ve argument tieing founded

on such minute t. Paterculus places Hesiu<l

800 years before Christ, and Hoint-r <>'/0 : and Herodo-
tua, making them co«'»—'<""^ "■>■- •'>■•— ' th.-ir /-.,.., ..,.„,
era at 8S4 ye«rs bti
rian matbles, Heaiod i.......^..<^. i,^...,, <l ...... ;,-r. jiv.>, ^,

and Homer 907.

Few ofth^ r- • —-:>-> ■ ■ ti .-..i -_.

tant, and t'

the small liiyuiM-r ill. It iiii\r rrrn'iutl im

Theogony, 'the Works and Days, anci
llerculea. Ttieae remain* have maniu-n.
greatly ftwn corruption and mutil.ition. I

additiona and alteratioa* with whicn iiil><:<iii

lave loeded and disfigured them, li.tve

their ori^nal simple chwacter, aa to raise

ibis of their antinuity,

Joaaph ScaligvT d. <

ia the pradoetion ei .

"' '' alima it ta Im! geiiuiiir. I
in peraem ao comp«-t'-nt tf.
actooated for only by the nr
atate of the poem With r.-c
Qaintilian has givri "ii«c

erity. •• If the Bat- -th

" be Haaod's genu
aa there b riaaim i<>
from hb ketaical g<T
•iad, aa flampared wi'

in acti<m, leas teeifiing with n

bat grand, mrnn-tir <•.

and datiog; bat more <

•lew and sMrly pace. I

eoaaider Hraind aa aaper ner."

and We aubioin a liat or t>M' ..-^i ,.<^in« of Hesioc!.— The

ba> Cetalqgae of Women or Heroinea, in five part-, of

HcsumU

rntul

' l«>»t,

ni' inetlio-

Mr KIton,
libld.
■racta

.1 :it

iif with a
>ublime, 1

Catakfgae of Women or Heroinea, in five
which the fl(\h appear* to hare been rntitle<
raaeny.' The Mclampodia, a poem on
The fiaat Astronomy, . r -•- " — f v
Thaaona lata Hadea. A<i
ad la bad by adoiphta. waa reeaaniicd by lea. Soothaaying and K^imi.
and thamardmnv npon riiiiHiiiun. w«f« gaiithw. f treat Artion. <
" ^J'.T'V?' '*•» ^wnwris of mm. I

and Thetia. 4^cmiu«. Eli
loved youth. Circuit of the t inn.
C^x. <>n Herha.

llie Marriage of

Homer; Ckero. Pluiiy. and P^crcuhia
mntaty bter; whAe a ihbd party.

P"««"J' ■«* Vana, mppaHad 1^ tha vl

thatily of HcrKlatiu, concur in BMking hia a contcra

a
are
an-

>«e an ingenious diaaertatioii on ' ''
prefited to a new traneUtion ■
Charles Abraham Elton. Lond. 1 8 1 J

(")

HERSCHLL, ia the name given by aoine astrono-

-Tk«

•* have a tndtoton thai Hiilii aaly vtete llw ponn of lh« Worka and Da;*

H E V

Hcue, men to the Georgium Sidus. See Astbonoht, vol. ii.
'^|"^'"«-, p. 6i9, and Uranus.

» ~ HESSE, a principality of Germany, is bounded on
the south by the bishopric of Fulda, the principalities
and the counties of Irenburg, Nidda, end Sohns ; on
the east, by Brunswick Eiclisfeld and Thuringia; on
the west, by Solms, Nassau, Westphalia, and Waldeck ;
and on the north, by Waldeck, Padenbom, and Bruns<
wick. Its figure is irregularly oval, and it extends
about 60 miles from north to south, and from 50 to 70
from west to east. It occupies 2760 square miles, and
contains 7'S0,OOO inhabitants.

The greater part of this principality was annexed by
Bonaparte to the new kingdom of Westphalia ; and
the grand duchy of Hesse, wliich was one of the states
of the Confederation of tl»e Rhine, was formed out of
new territories. Before the peace of Presburg it con-
tained 154' square German miles, and had a population
of 319,000 ; after the peace of Presburg, its extent was
202 square miles, its population 478,800, its military
contingent 4000, and its revenue in rixdollars 1 ,6ti0,000.
An account of this principality will be found in our ar-
ticle on the circle of the Rhine, of which it forms a
part. See Cassel and Darmstadt.

HEVELIUS, or Hoevelkb, John, a celebrated Po-
lish astronomer, was bom at Dantzic on the 28 th Ja-
nuary 161 1, and was the son of a brewer of that city.
After studying mathematics under Peter Cruger, he
travelled through Holland, Germany, England, and
France, between the years 1630 and 1634; and upon
his return to his native place, he was principally em-
ployed in the affairs of the republic of Dantzic, of which
he was made consul in 1651. About the year I66O, by
the advice of his former master, he devoted himself
•wholly to the study of astronomy. In the year 1641, he
built an observ'atory at his own expence, and furnished
it with excellent telescopes and graduated instruments,
which he constructed with his own hands. With these
instruments, which consisted of a sextant, a quad-
rant 6| feet radius, and very large telescopes, he made
numerous observations, the result of which appear-
cd at Dantzic in the year 1647, in his work entitled
■" Selenographia, sive Lunse descriptio, atque accu-
rata, tam tnaculorum ejus, quam motuum diverso-
rum, aliarumque omnium vicissitudinum phasiumque
telescopii ope deprehensarum, delineatio : in qua simul
ca;terorum omnium planetarmn nativa facies, variaeque
observationcs, presertim autem macularum solarium et
jovialium tubo specillo acquisitae, figuris sub aspectum
ponuntur ; necnon quam plurimae astronomiciB, opticas,
physicxque quxstiones resolvuntur. Addita est nova
ratio lentes expoliendi, telescopia construendi, et ho-
rum adminiculo varias observationes exquisite insti-
tuendi."

In 1650, he published an epistle to his friend Eich-
stad, on the eclipse of the sun, on Nov. 4th 1649 ; and
in 1652, appeared another epistle on the solar eclipse,
addressed to Gasscndi and BuUialdus.

About this time, Hevelius made the important dis-
covery of the moon's libration, of which he gave an
account in a letter to Riccioli, which was published in
1654, and entitled De motu Lunce Ubralorio in certasta-
bulas rtdacto. In 1656 he published his Dissertalio de
Nativa Sal umi facie, ejiisque variLs phadbus, certa pe-
riodo rcdeuiitibus aii addita est Eclipsis Solis anni 1656,
observatio et diametri iolis apparaitis accurata dimensio.

48

H E V

In I66I, Hevelius had the good fortune to observe Heveliu*.
the transit of Mercury on the sun's disc; and in 1662, ^""Y"™'
he published his observations, entitled, " Mercurius in
sole visus anno I66I, cum aliis quibusdam rerum coe-
lestium obscrvationibus, rarisque phenomenis ; cui an-
nexe est Venus in sole pariter visa 1639, Liverpoliae a
Jeremia Horroxio, nunc primum edita, notisque illus-
trata. Accedit succincta historiola novae ac mirae stellae
in collo Ceti certis anni temporibus clare admodum ef-
fulgentis, rarsus omnine evanescentis ; necnon genuina
delineatio paraselenarum et parheliorum * quorundam
rarissimorum."

The reputation of Hevelius was now so great, that
the illustrious Colbert recommended him to the notice
of Louis XIV. who granted him a pension. A copy of
the letter, in which Colbert announced this act of liber-
ality to Hevelius, is preserved in the Royal Library at
Paris. Hevelius shewed his gratitude by dedicating to
Colbert his " Prodromus Cometicus, quo Historia Come-
taj anno 1664 exorti cursura, faciesque diversas capitis ac
caudae accurate delineatas complectens, necnon disserta-
tio de cometarum omnium motu, generatione variisque
phenomenis exhibetur," Dantz. 1665. A supplement
to this work appeared in 1666, entitled, " Descriptio
Comet« anno 1 665, exorti cum genuinia observationi-
bus tam nudis quam enodatis mense Aprili habitis ; cui
addita est mantissa Prodromt Comelici, observationes
omnes prioris Cometas l664, ex iisque genuinum motum
accurate deductum, cum notis et animadversionibus, ex-
hibens."

In the year I668, he published in folio, his great
work on comets, under the title of " Cometographia,
totara naturam Cometarum, utpote sedem, parallaxes,
distantias, ortum et interitum, capitum caudai'umque
diversas facies, afTectionesque, necnon motum eorum
summe admirandum, beneficio unius, ejusque fixae et
convenientis hypotheseos, cxhibens ; in qua universa
insuper phenomena, questionesque de cometis omnes
rationibus cvidentibus deducuntur, demonstrantur, ac
iconibus aeri incisis plurimis illustrantur ; cumprimis
vero Cometoc annorum 1652, 1 661, l664, 1665, .ibipso
auctore summo studio observati. — Accessit omnium
Cometarum, a mundo condito hue usque, ab historicis
philosophis et astronomis annotatorum, historia, notis
et annotationibus locupletata, cum peculiar! tabula Co*
metarum Universal!."

When this work was completed, Hevelius sent a
copy of it to Dr Hooke, and to other distinguished
members of the Royal Society. In return for this work,
Dr Hooke presented Hevelius with a Description of
the Dioptric Telescope, and the method of using it ;
and recommended it as preferable to the use of plain
sights in astronomical instruments. In this way com-
menced the celebrated controversy respecting the use
of plain and telescopic sights. Hooke maintained, that
with an instrument of a span radius, the distances and
altitudes of celestial objects could be measured to a se-
cond by telescopic sights ; and Hevelius insisted in his
reply, that with a gocd eye, and great experience,
he had obtained the same accuracy in the use of
his instruments ; and he sent eight distances between
stars, for the purpose of being examined by Dr
Hooke. Here the controversy was for the present ter-
minated, •

In the year 1673, Hevelius published in folio, the
first part of his " Machina Celestis, organographiam.

• These Paraseleae and Parhelia are described in our article Halo, VoL X. p, 614, and represented in Plate CCLXXXVIl. Figs. 4,
«, 6.

HEVELIUS.

49

■iva iiMfiiiiiiwitnnnii atlniMMBinxtuii omnium quibui
MKtor Man kaeteiMU riiMMi at Wiiawww est, aecu'
raU liiiliBiltii at dcwrriptio plnribus konibtH tni in-
daw QloMnU ct exommU ; cum aliis quibusdam Um
JMondii q«Mii ictta digni*. qtur ad mcchanicam opti-
cidMW pertinent, anmiatlTeriionibiu, imprimis de
BMJt— omm twhof in conatntctione et umuiiiili«aima di-
raebone, necnon nova bdlliina Ic-ntn qnaaria ex aec-
tiaailMn eooi expoliendi ratiooc." Heveliu* lent ov
fim af tkia work to all hi* fnenda in En^^nd ex-
eeot Dr Hooke ; who, in revenge of the afront, pub'
bibad in 167^ bit " AnimadvenioB* on the Firat
Part «f dM Mackmm Ceinlit, of the hooourable,
lawned, aid 6hhmw Joannes Heveliiu, together with
an iipltti»iM tt umt inatnaaeoU made by R. H."
Lend. Utt. That work wm ehanetoiaed b^ the ir-
of its author. It waa written with that
-. Jtn^anl •uperioritj, which injured bis own
! agnd excittd the bigbeet reaentroent on the part
of HaraUiu. In the Mna rear, Hnreliua arnt a letter
(•the Roja) Saeiatjr, comainmg a replj to the oi^actioas
af Hooke and PlanHtead, aDdappealing to obaarratioa
lar the < iii n itnaaa of ha opiaiana. He cooiplained of
the " bittemcaa and boaatiDg^ with which he had been
attacked, and raqMatad iImI tba Boyal Society would
•end aoo* aaiaeBt attraBooMr to axamine his inatn-
menU aitd method ef aaing them. This i imhwIiIs
demand waa Msadsd to; aad Dr HaOajr, who haU
Daari^ the aaiaa epintona as Hooka, waa requested to
rapair to Dantaic; He arrived in that citjr on the 36th
Ifav 1079, and conunued with Herelio* till the IMh
of July. By mean* of ■agood inatrument. fumi«hcd
wiA MiMCapie aighia, HaDajeaaapartd hbown oiMer>
rabaM with thaaa af Haftbus; flMl ha particalarly au
mdad to the luceaarira obMrvalions aads npaii tfaa
aaas star* bv HavaGoi^ with hia kqp bnaa arxtant.
Tha reauk of this euMinatioa was hicfaly ftvourable to
ovaadHV. HdlOTlaftanatteMatiaB,daMlJnl7».ISth,
1079, daehviqg hiaaeir ■ abundaDtljr aatiaicd of tha
naa aiirf laitaiiu* ti Ibcao hia laatmuuim and obarr.
Titiaafc And wbanaa ha had befctv been alwa^'t doubt-
ful, that his sliMiraliiaii by naked sights might as to
sova ahMitaa bauaeertaia. and had tbcrsforr wondand
why he dcai»ad iha asa of liliiBuaii iMcs; ha hsd,
partly ta gnaOala tha aathor's paUhMig of his
vatisM, and partly to aalMSr his awn wwlIbb. i
taken that jsamer, wMdiheiia'

with it: an

raaaavMiUaawaayaaiiat aaa
•>af ahaiwiiwii^ tha fc.

lof tha
ar tw% bat a

I by aa ia*

' port of a air

la tha year l«79. HevaSaa pahHshad his •• Ma.
tMnmCuUmk Par* Hostenor; maai Uianfcaiam ob.
aervatioaaa, taa adipaiaa huaiaariaai i^aam ocrulta.
^iHManaa « faanit^ aacBon akitadinum me-
■»»P*s*fcaa, aalaliliar«Mi rt vqainoctiomm,
I lell^aram ptaastaraaa §iaraaM|ue omninni
I oafMlaraai m

labore es ipso atbere haustas, peratuhisque iconibut, HereKus.
auctoria manu «eri indsiii, illustrataa et esomatas, tri« ^^^Z"™'
bus libris ezhiben*.'

Hrveiius had fortunately presented about SO copies
of this work to his frienda ; tor before it was published;
his property of every deacription was consumed by a
dreadful fire, on the S6th September 1()79- No fewer
than seven houses, containing his money, plate, gold,
silver, household goods, printing houses, great part of
his library, the remaining copies of all his printed
works, published at his own ezpence, from the year
1647 to 1679, and particularly nis observatory, with
all his optical and astronoaical instruments, were com-
pletely reduced to ashes Amoo^ the articles preaustd
were the latter part of his Machtna Celrttu, containing
the observations of nearly 50 y«ars, and hia Na» Ca-
UUcgmtaflJkt Fixtd Start.

A full account of this calamity, and of his dispute
with l)r Hooke, were publiih«l in l')85, in his " An-
nus Climactericus, sive rerum Uranicarum et observa-
tionum annus quadrageaimus nonus, exhibens diversss
occnhationea tara planetarum qnam (ixarum, post edi«
tam Macfainam Celestan obaaivatas, nt-cnon ])lurimaa
altitudiiiae awridianaa solis, et distantias planetarum
ao anno impatratas cum amicorum nonul-
apistalia ad rem istara spectantibus et continua-
stallc in CoUo Ceti, at et annoU-

as, plari
veu zi. ra«T x.

This work wss the last which Hevelius published.
Worn out with the infirmities of age, and with the la-
bours of scienot, ha died on thr Stith January 1687, in
the 76th year of hia age. Hcvciius leA liehnol l.tm the
iipalaliuii of having been on* of the mo!>t .i^

aad iagcoious practical astrononera of the -^^ ..tch

ha lived The surprisa which Halle^ rspresaed at the
wondeiflil accuranr of hia obacrvattor- v '• be felt
by every person who examines tlitau, ' consi*

dcr* that they are well made by aiiassti.»-w ti^iuii, snd
that tha iastnnaents wars ooostructad and graduated
with his own hands.

licvrlius Irit behind him two complete works, and
other asanuscripts. The first of these made it»
ia MI90, m folio, rntitlrd, " rrociromus
. ashibeta Amdmicnta qua tam sd novum
plana at caawrthat la ataBanwn tnnua catalogum con-

tiaraa (abaha aahuaa, aliaaaas phrniaas ad astrono-
nioai pailliwatas, utpola ranactMnan solarium, paral-
lasiaa, darihatloiMaB, aagaienun ediptinr et meri-
diaai. asaaMiiMni laelanm rt obliquarum horixunti
Oadaataaai {aaarriantiaB. diisrrntiarum aMmaiona-
Uaaa, aalaa itaa rt tvAactionttm strllamm fixarum,
qinibaa addilaa art ataiuaa catakgos strllamm fixanira,
taa at^^or ad saai. W9&, onaro minor sd aim. cianplo-
turn 1700. Aanaait CoroUarii loco tabula mo^us lume
libratorii, ad Una aacak proxime ventura prolongata,
brevi cna ileactipti>>na cjaaaue usu."

This work, which was published by his wiflow, con-
taint thr catalogue of 1 888 stars. It wss afterwards
reprinted in the :ki vol. of Fiamstcad's Hutoria Olu-
lu, and is incorporated in the catalogue of stars 'given
in our srticle Aitronomv

In the same >rar appeared his other posthumous
work, entitled, " Firmarorntum .Sobiesoanuro sive Ura-
nographia, t<Xum ctelum stellatum, utpote tam quod-

librt sidus quam otanas rt singulas stnlas, — ■ <*"ni

genoinas consm im^nitailinia undo oculo c

cognitas, rt mipcr prianim dctcctas, aocurau«>iiuu»|ue

HEX

56

HEY

IleTcUui

II
Ilc&hkm.

orsanis rite observatas, eshibens; et quidem quodvis
siduj in peculiari tabella, in piano descriptum, sic ut
omnia coiijunctim totum globura celestem exactissimc
relcrant: prout ex binis heraispheriis majoribus, bo-
reali scilicet ct australi, adhuo clarius cuique patet."
This work contains 54 charts, representing the whole
heavens.

Hevelius was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
of Lon(*on in 16(54. and contributed several papers to
the Philosophical Transactions.

When M. Delisle passe<l through Dantzic on his way
to Russia in 1626, he purchased all the manuscript ob-
servatK'ns of Hevelius, along with his extensive cor-
respundence, forming seventeen folio volumes, four of
■which were occupied with his observations. These
manuM'ripts contain much curious information respect-
ing the history of astronomy. They were lodged by
Delisle in the depot of the marine at Paris. Those who
wish for farther and more minute details respect-
ing the life and writings of Hevelius, will find much
information in a life of hira, published at Dantzic^ in
1780 by Benjamin Leugnicli, and entitled, Hevelius,
oder Anehdoten und Nachrichten von diesem beruchnten
Manne. Many particulars respecting our author will also
be found in I3emoulli's Travels in Prussia, Poland,
and Warsovia, 1782, p. 183. A figure of his mauso-
leum is given in Bernoulli's Collection of Voyages,
torn. ii. 1781. See also the Journal de Savans, Aout.
1 782, and Murr's Journal Literaire, Nuremb.

HEXACHORD Mo/or of Galileo, is an interval of
music, whose ratio is \\, = 462 S + 9 f + 40 m, or the
Comma-rcdundanl major sixth. See that article.

Hexachord Major of the Greeks, or hexachordon
major of Holder, &c. has the ratio f, = 4512 +9f +
3f) m, or the Major sixth, which see.

Hexachord Minor of Didymus, has the ratio tt7>=
404 2 -J- 8 f -1- 35 m, or the Comma- deficient minor
'SIXTH, which see.

Hexachord Minor of Galileo, has the ratio ^^, =
4262 -f- 8f-J- 37 m, or the Comma-redundant minor
SIXTH, which see.

Hexachord Minor of the Greeks, or hexachordon
minor of Holder, &c. has the ratio |^, = 4152+82 +
36 m, or the Minor sixth, which see. (V)

HEXAEDRON. See Crystallography.

HEXAGON. See Geometry, vol. x. p. 221.

HEXHAM, is a market-town of England, in the
county of Northumberland, finely situated on the
south side of the river Tyne, at the confluence of
the north and south Tyne. The two long streets, of
■which the town consists, are narrow, and not well
built ; but the town contains some good houses. The
road from Newcastle to Hallwhistle passes through one
of the streets, and the other principal street runs at
right angles to this. At the intersection of these streets,
stands the spacious market-place in a large square, with
a convenient piazza for the butchers market, which has
moveable stalls, and which is well supplied with -wa-
ter from a fountain. The church of Hexham, which
forms a part of its ancient monastery, founded in 1112,
is highly ornamented in the inside, and contains many
fine sepulchral monuments. This church was dedicated
to St Andrew, and was much celebrated for its beauty
and extent by ancient historians. It is in the form of a
Greek cross. The tower, which is in the centre, ap-
pears low and broad, though it has a height of 102
feet. The architecture is Gothic and Saxon. A dou-
ble gallery runs round the whole structure, opening
with Saxon archer each opening being composed of

three arches, the middle circular, and the others Heihani
pointed, with very light pillars. The nave was burnt II
down by the Scots in I296, and nothing remains of it Heywood.^
but part of its western door. The choir now forms the » ~
parish church, and is crowded with inelegant pew« and
galleries. The priory stood at the west end of the
church ; and not many j'ears ago, its cloister and cha-
pels were to be seen. There are two ancient stone
towers at Hexham, one of which is used as a sessions-
house, and formerly belonged to the priors of Hexham.
The other is situated on the top of a hill near the Tyne.

It appears from two Roman inscriptions, found in a
crypt of the church, that the Romans had a station, or
town, at this place ; for it is obvious, that this was not
the Epiacum of the ancients, as Horsley supposed.
The crypt, where they were found, is a place fifteen
feet by nine, and contains a number of carved stones,
which seem to have once formed part of a Romau
fortress.

The town is governed by a bailie chosen annually.
The principal employment of the inhabitants consists in
tanning leather, and in making shoes, hats, and gloves.

The following is a statistical abstract of the parish
for 1811:

Inhabited houses, , , 729

No. of families, 1171

Do. employed in trade and manufactures, 639

Males, 2136

Females, 2719

Total Population, 4855

See Pennant's Tour in Scotland, vol. iii. ; Hutchinson's
History of Northumberland ; and the Bcatdies of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. xii. p. 158' — 168.

HEXHAM, Battle of. See England, vol. viii.
p. 638. col. 2.

HEYWOOD, Jasper, D. D. a writer of the age of
Queen Elizabeth, and son of the epigrammatist Hey-
wood, whom we shall immediately have occasion to men-
tion. He was born in London 1 535, and studied at Mer-
ton College, Oxford ; from whence, according to Wood,
he was on the point of being expelled for his irregular
life, when he resigned his fellowship. Soon after he
repaired to St Oraers, and entered into the Society of
Jesus at that place. From thence he went to Diling
in S'witzerland, where he distinguished himself by his
learning and zeal for disputing with heretics ; so as to
obtain the rank of doctor of divinity. In the year 1581,
Pope Gregory the XIII. sent him at the head of tlie
first mission of Jesuits to England, but her majesty
shipped him off, with 70 of his associates, out of the
kingdom ; and, returning to Italy, he died at Naples,
where the zealous catholic Joannes Pittseus contracted
an intimacy with him, and speaks of him with great
respect. He translated tliree of the tragedies ascribed
to Seneca, viz. the Thuesles, Hercules Furens, and
Troas, in the measure of the syllables, and from that
circumstance has obtained a name in poetical biogra-
phy. (,)

HEYWOOD, John, father of the preceding writer,
was one of the earliest dramatic writers that England
produced. Warton says of him, that he drew the Bible
from the stage, and introduced representations of po-
pular life, and familiar manners. He was bom at North
Mims, near St Albans, in Hertfordshire, and in his
youth contracted an intimacy with Sir Thomas More,
who introduced him to the patronage of the princess .
(afterwards queen) Mary. His jests, and musical ta-

HEY

51

H I E

Hq«M<L lenU, made him a favourite with Henry V'lII. who fre-
■'^C-' quently made him bandaoaie preflenta. When Mary
caiue to the throne, he was admittetl to her most inti-
mate ccnrctwtiaa, and ia said to have amused her with
bis diTtftiiuratariea eren in her last illness. On the
acoMMJO ofEliaabeth, being a bi^otted catholic, he na-
turaUy anticipated the loaa of hu court favour ; and,
mkag into vofauitary exile, he settled at Mechlin in
BhmM, wbare he died in 1565.

At a poet, he was famous in his time, ami his jph>ys
are still curious relics. One of them, Tkr Four P'l, is
in Dodalef's Collection. His lon^^eat work is the Sw-
Jkr mud S^, of which honest Holingshed sars, " that
the anthor dealeth so protbundlie anri beyona all mea-
sure of skill, that neitner he himself that made it, nor
any one that rcadcth it, can reach unto the meaning
tboceC" His Diahgne of Proirrln, and Sis Humdred
Epigram*, give ns but a bumble idea of the wit and
oonrcTMtiaa of oar ancestors. («)

HEYWOOD, TiioMAo. This author wm an actor
M well aa a writer, and flourislied in the reigns of Queen
FJiMh<*ii. Janes I. and Charles I. The date of his
biith and death, (we might almost add, the whole his-
tory ct his life,) is unknown, except his profession and
character as a writer. In the latter capacity he is dia-
tingniihad aa one of tht oMst prolific th«t cT«r existed :
for, b»>idc8 Ua pnae eaanpositiatis of Tie EmgHtk Tm-

; Afekfwfar Atian, ttc. &c. he tells us, that the

I in wbteDM hwi

£2i

mmmwift

' hod oitlier a principal share, or wrote
nted to two hutMlred and twenty. Of
, it ia true, that but a few oouparativeiy r»>
■Mia. Difccnt rrasnns havo baca aaigMd for tho
loss of so m«iy of than. It has been dtcgcd. thM they
were lost from the dcsahory manner in wkich he wrote
them, on the backs of plav-biUs and Uvem-btUa, as ho
was a grant frcqnentrr oTtavcms; bat the trm rsaaon
setns to have been, that the manegsn, in tboae days,
porchaaed the sole pwnisitji of the cooiaa oTiikya, and
It was not their hlnm tv let tfaea be noblished tiU
the public had baco eoMletaly satiated with then ; of
course whan plays enaad to be attractive, the mrmory
of than voald perish, and the actors would not murfi
tmMe III— silvas abaot ooamositiaaB. which, if tbsy
had basn BiilaJ. Brirfifet have wprfd the cost.

Of » of hia plays Otal ivaaia t» na, ihOTv n ane that
oMgfat espcdalfy to Tads— Ua aaaa tmm aUivion.
Thn is, nr IToaiM IsIM n*A JD'adWw. Tbeintaraat
of it is fcondad. Hke that of Katntbin's Strmtgrr, an a
inBdeii^, and the rapantance that
it ta—taalaa Mia* tngioally, and with a

^ , ^^ Un rtmUmd, the pan Hant.

**!?•* •a^^J' •»• l»*i^ «— M fbfglvo brr.
sdr, and dwa btdUB-baartad. Ia tfaia, awl in srscnl
other pMccs. Hcyvaed, Aaogh not h%My hmaM nor
poetical, and thoo^ he sea— to have iMrdy poiansed
n anbitMM of a poet— to be thoMcht each.—
Im excwdiagiT astaral and loadiing. The
between Fraaklaad aad hi
toadung. It

HIBERNATION. See Hyberxatjow.
HIERA. SeeKAMMEM.

HIERES, is a town of France, in the department ^
of the Var, about nine miles cast of Toulon. It is
situatetl in a delightful valley, about four leagues
long and one broad, open on the »outh to the sea, and
boiinde<l on the nortli, east, and we?t. by lofty moun*
tains. Between the northern and western chain is a
narrow pass, which is the road to Toulon. At the
sloping entrance of this pass, on the declivity of a
mountain that defends the whole plain, is situated the
town, which is built in the form of an amphitheatre.
The summit iif the mountain is bare, and is cleft in se-
veral places, to give it the appearance of a fortification
from a distance. Towards the base of the mountain,
stands the modem part of the town, which contains the
principal street, the square, and the inns ; but it has a
gloomy and dirty appearance. The old town, which
stands on the highest part of the mountain, presents a
heap of uninhaDited ruins ; but the suburbs, which
skirt the mountains, are chearful and clean, and have a
neat and rural apnearance.

Near the rooutn of the small river Gapeau, which
intersects the plain of Hieres, are the salt-pits, con-
sisting of a number of small basins separated by canals.
The nooaes of the auperintendants, excisemen, and
wotfcasan, have the appearance of a little sea- port. The
salt is sent te Toulon, Marseilles, and GeiKM, and the
annual revenue amounts to about Sno Or>0 francs.

About four Eqglisli miles from the town i< the Etang,
aitaaled in the eantre uf an isthmus, running from the
aootbem eoaat It is about a league long, and half a
laa|pi« broad, and the three little islands in the middle
ofileantain a mat nonbar of aquatic birds. The
laattiii part of tne isthmus joins the road of Hieres,
Md is called La Plage de la .Munasse. Tlie lower part
of it is the peninsula Giens, which contains many inte-
resting obiects.

Hieres u celebrated lor the mild temperature of its
winters ; but it ia rsehoned unhealthy from May to
October

At the chapel of Notre Dame, on a hill situated near
the aca-aborc, and about a Icagae from the town, is a
good panting of the Twelve Apostles, and a bas-relief,
by Pogat.

The cardan of M. Fillc is well worthy of being vi-
Ili ioaaal icrenue is about 84,000 fhincs. In
I ti M. Baaarcgard, which is excellent, a crop
afaiticiMkaa sold, ia 1793. far 1800 ftanoa. The chief
fton Hieres are oil, wine, frvit, vegeubles,
aad sail, which are aant almost exclusively to
Taalaa aad Ma—illaai A thooaand oranges are sold
fcr 40 Uwas. Vaanls are loaded in «ummer at the
' tfaa iall>«arks ; but in winter, all the mrr-

HibtmsUvu

I

Hieres

chandiae nast ba oenseyad to Toulon by land. East
Long. 6* r 55*. and North Let 4^7' S*. Population

Notof tMavOTia.

^'^ •-•>«i art •.t.aia twMpt.mil.
Mywilt, Iks MMksr u mj ptmy bsksa.

•fWn> Uisu stt Piusiiillatfcy I
AM wtaiUial grttf afMiliV <

H«aiMi to hMrt. >pm ay Ml. dM ««!.
^lfr.Awa._r>xe«Msawn>.— I.t>.el,fc«.,«.n
•^mtn, Tk7wifi«n*ai,«n«— latlkse! (,)

about 7000. See ChrisL August. Fischer Rii$e naeh
hia wife L very //jreres, mi IfSatersois ItOS and ISM. Leipsic, 1806;
aiid Mimat Wtmmgrt dam U$ Departemeiu du Midi de
U Frmm, loaL a. chap. 6l.

HIERES, IsLBs or, (the Iiuuttr Artanm,) are a
elastcr of three small islands in the Mediterranean, m-
•aalad aboat fcar la^gaaa from the town of Hieraa.
They ate called PMaaarollea. Porticros, and the isle of
Titan. They were called Stoechadca by the Marseilloie,
who first inhabitad them. The aioat western of these
is Porquerallca. which b the largest aad best wooded,
fm ami contains M inllabitaiMaL Porticroe ia three leagues
farther to tfaa east, and ii more elevated and fertfle. It
5

HIE

52

HI E

Hmiki,
pliin.

hits a'haveii, ami contains about 50 inhabitants. The
other island is ubout three quarters of a league to the
east of I'orticros. It has fewer inlwbitants, and is less
fertile tlian the rest. All these islands may be seen from
the town of Hieres. They are defended by small forts,
and are covered with lavender anil strawberries. They
are frequently visited by parties of pleasure from the
town. See Fischer's A'cwe tiac/i Hycres.

HIERO. See Syracuse.

HIERO'S Crown. See Hydrodyn.vmics.

HIEROGLYPHICS, ( from <^.f, .v«crerf, and yX«p«y,
io carte,) properly sculptui-es or carvings, (and hence,
by an easy and obvious transition, jxiintings also,) sym-
bolically denoting, by particular figures and collocations
-of external or corporeal objects, sacred, moral, and reli-
gious truths.

Hieroglyphics may be considered as a species, of
which symbol is the genus ; for hieroglyphics are a par-
ticular class of symbols, differing however from other
sj'mbols, as well by tlie nature of the truths of which
they are the signs, as by the mysterious and recondite
mode in which these truths are exhibited. The truths
denoted by hieroglyphics properly relate not to com-
mon or trivial objects, but to things sacred or divine ;
and the mode of exhibiting these is designedly obscure
and enigmatical, requiring sagacity and acuteneas, as
well as patient attention, to develope their meaning.

The origin of hieroglyphical writing has generally
been derived from Egypt ; and undoubtedly it appears
to have been there that hieroglyphics first assumed the
foi-m of a regular system. But, in fact, the first steps
in the formation and employment of hieroglyphic em-
blems, may be traced as nearly coeval with the earliest
attempts of miinkind to communicate their thoughts by
visible marks, in addition to articulate sounds. In such
attempts, it seems plain, that the first, as being the
most natural, way of accomplishing the end, would be
by presenting a picture or delineation of the object to
be denoted. To express a man, an animal, or a tree,
the figure of the object would be drawn and exhibited.
To intimate that a man had been slain by a wild beast,
the figure of a man stretched on the earth, and the ani-
mal standing over him, would be fonued ; to indicate
that a hunter had caught his prey, the picture of the
man with the prey in his hands would be given. Such
was probably the earliest mode of writing. It is the
opinion of the best informed writers, that it prevailed
among the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and other early com-
munities ; and we know with certainty, that it was in
use among the Mexicans when invaded by the Spa-
niards,— intelligence of their arrival having been trans-
mitted to the emperor in a picture, and even the histo-
ry of the empire having been delineated by paintings
upon skins, afterwards found in one of the temples.

This way of communicating thoughts, however, was,
of necessity, liable to much inconvenience. It was of-
ten difficult, and generally bulky. To lessen the toil,
and abridge the size of the picture, different modes of
abbreviation were resorted to. The principal part of
the object might first be made to stand for the whole ;
as the head ior the man, a hand holding a weapon for
a warrior. Nex't, the principal circumstance in a com-
plicated action might denote the entire action ; two or
more hands, with weapons opposed, might denote a
battle; a scaling-ladder, set against a wall, a siege.
In a short time, a farther improvement would occur ;
to put the instalment of an action for the thing
itself, aa, we are informed by Hori Apollo, two feet
standing in water represented the fulling of cloth.
S

Nearly connected with this, was the practice of de-
noting the efficient cause by the effect produced ;
as harvest, by a sheaf of corn — winter, by a leafless
tree — hostile incursion, by ruined buildings and dead
boilies.

From these different kinds of contracted character*,
the transition was easy to the third stage in the pro-
gress of writing; to make one tiling represent another,
where any resemblance sufficiently sticking between
tbe two objects could be perceived. To this mode of
communication it became frequently necessary to have
recourse. Intellectual objects of every kind ; the pas-
sions and feelings of men ; the moral qualities of ac-
tions, admit of no ilirect delineation by picture, they
must therefore be represented, if represented at all, by
sensible objects, to which they either bear, or are sup-
posed to bear, some resemblance. Under the view of
such analogies, wisdom was signifietl by an eye ; in-
gratitude, by a viper biting the hand that offered it food;
courage, by a lion; cunning, by a serpent. This con-
stitutes what may properly be termed tbe sijmbnlic
mode of writing. It is in some measure analogous to
that stage in the .progress of speech observed among
all rude tribes, where figures, tropes, and metaphors,
fill up a great portion of every harangue.

This mode of writing is founded on resemblances
perceived or supposed; and as it is difficult to set limits
to the power of imagination in discovering or figuring
resemblances, it might be supposed that the symbolic
mode of writing could be carri.^d to an indeterminate
extent. But in fact it has its limits; it must be under-
stood if it is to be useful at all; the resemblance, there-
fore, must be either obvious an<l discerned liy mere in-
tuition, or so generally perceived and recognised, that
the persons to whom it is addresed may easily pass
from the sign to the thing signified. If the resem-
blance be very recondite and remote, if the analogy is
traced from qualities not generally observed, the sym-
bolic writing becomes proportionally obscure, and to
the uninstructed not even intelligible.

It is thus, by a natural progress, that we can trace
the origin of hieroglyphics. Mere picture writing was
an obvious invention ; contraction of picture writing
was probably taught by necessity : symbols required
the exercise of imagination ; at first, probably, plain
and perspicuous, they soon became more complicated
and obscure.

Among a people who had no mode of representing
their thoughts but by means of figures or characters of
this description, the very progress of knowledge, or the
extension of enquiry beyond the mere objects of sense
or immediate oliservation, could not fail both to add to
the number, and augment the obscurity of the symbo-
lic signs made use of. New discoveries, new truths,
new subjects of thought, required appropriate and ex-
pressive symbols ; these might either be drawn fi-om
objects not nitherto delineated, or figures previously
in use might be employed, arranged in forms and col-
locations remote from their former delineations. In
either way it woidd follow, that to persons unacquaint-
ed with the very subjects to wliich the signs related,
the symbols, until explained, would present confused
and unintelligible groups. It was in this manner that
the universe, or universal nature, came to be denoted
by a winged globe, with a serpent issuing from it ; and
a serpent itself was made to represent the divine nature,
on account of its supposed vigour and spirit, its great
age, and the reverescence ascribed to it.

Hieroglyphics then are only an extension of picture

HIEROGLYPHICS.

53

as objacU. The

wnrir>'*, was to

to

. lUMBtly- writiug, ulapt
1^^ fim use, even ■

^^"y"^ reconl the hi^t
munity ; not, .
conceal know letlxe, but in fact to preaerve wul cum-
municate it Bui «lWv.- - '- i-;-- .--i-, phict came to be
employed for a very dir rum the very na-

ture at such a mode o( » rumg, a » easy to tee how
conTcniently, in itte hands of a act of ancn aiming at
prr-cmiacnce by the reputation of auperior wisdom, it
might be used, cither to oaocaai their knowladp;, or
reU their ignorance from the people. Enigmatic fi-
gures, explained onlv to the initiated, were admirably
fitted for such an entf ; and where the situatioo and cir-
ctioutanoes li' the ueople parmitied this made «f con-
cealment, we mif nt expect to find it introdneed and
carried on. The extent, however, to which it could
be carried, must be dctermiDed by the character or by
the peculiar inatttutiens of a peonle. UImiv superio-
rity in knowledge in any dasa of the eanuMiBity was
somII. and tl» Mpantioa cf pwfwsiwia net verjr rigid,
the opportunkiea of oonoaaung kaowtedge would be
Ctw, and the use of enigmatic figuiw laaa fkvqucnt ;
but where diatinctiuns were strongly marked, particu-
larly where a scpante class of ncn were act apart to
the CDoducttng of religions ritca and asOTaMMii^ thar*.
if nouiUBleractingdrrnnMtaiMa occnrw«i,tha»€rMinrii
and wmmm would ha niiwiwiiis and raadil* twimmmi.

CpoQ tfaeae principles it ia not dificuU lo diaeovcr
in the situatioit and character of the ^yptiaa nriaat
hood, the circumatancea which, thonoi ihejr (ud not
imiard prodnce the invention of biarogmhiM^ MrtHD-
ly oGcauaaed a more extcsuiva nae M taaai ifcaa ptv-
vaikd claewbcre. The Egyptian prieato war* ■ aep*-
rate class of men, closely united aaaeng llMinwUsa.
but Mcrrdly diiunct frum the people, at a tiSM when
the oolv mode of wriiia|| in Egypt waa bjr picfiea
or tjinbalic stgn*. Thev ictirrtl life, jotncd with
tfae(4>iecsa about whicii •* — ^— r-hiefly CBiploycd,
gave thera the mcana ai t' carrying tneir

rcMarchcs into at«tract ;. ..^.. iu>.,i, than the rest of
their iMintrymrii ; the fruits of thrae mean Ilia wrrr
dcaolrd by prculiar, oAcn by the moat giiitasipia mkI
OBpricsoua symbola, oonveyisg a secret myntmm oaiy
t- '^'- -nitialed. In no other CMuoaunity,
>isc nppurtuiutics f>ccur. Amoa^ i
iiii.i..a>. the separatibn of tlie di&vant <
neither wide nor permanent, and e««n wlMr« ihey were,
yet as soon as Alphabetic or even rlMWitsi wriiii^
«aa intrudacad. (be aac of syvbahc wriiing would be
in a grcM meaaure sapawadid. Hian«iy|ita*a Snm
that period, cultivated only for sacred paipiaaa by the
priaats from the love of^ n^ atrry and oooeaalBMnt,
weald soon lose their aawung. and ia tiaM baaime
wbaJhr unintelligible to all but the prieaU aad their

ppcara lo have been the hiatary of hicm.

writing. The nature of it Im* baan al-
'r-.<l> < xptaiaed. The aymboiaaiade usaof ia it were
i^nu-a by aaaemblagea of variooa nbiarta, piaata, ani.
auU, narla of the humin body, heavenly iiIi)mH, tar-
mlrial appcarsners ; all thcae coaibiiMd m oaupa,
which beiqg first Mofaably put topatlw apoa fiamed
resesiblaneea, could hardly be deciphered, after the se-
cret of their ccaanoaiiian was lost. .Saiie Icaniad men
harp ttiprmcd thst the Lgypttan birTc«lyphica coo-
ilad^e; prubaUy they

' uj employ naiiis in dariiihi i ina
thou, would only be a waate of laaMT.
Hieroglyphics abound on the andaat aionumenU of

Egypt; the great ob*H*k brou^Ut from Egypt to
Rome, is Ml of such figures ; and on almost all the
obeliaka now existing tMy are met with. Many cu-
rious hieroglyphic ^ures were engraved on what was
termed the Isiack Table, a large black table, long pre-
aerved at Rogoe, and at the sacking of that city, in
lait5, found by a poor tradesman, and at\erwards re-
moved to Mautua, where it di&appeantl at the capture
of the place. It had been previously engraved, and a
plate or it ia given in Montfaucmi's AniitfHilict. Many
EgTptian hicroglyphka were also engraved on ^ta»,
ma aiMll figorea, whicli are atill to be met with in ca-
bineta. Hieroglyphica, properly so called, seem to be
almoat peculiar to Egyptian anti(|uities : tlie uncouth
■ul distorted figurca of aome of the Hindoo gods, have
been eonjecturad to conatitute significant entblems,
aosaawhat of the nature of hienapyphics ; but it t^
pears to have been in Egypt alone that they were exten-
aively employed ; a aroaaMtence tliat may easily be ac-
coaB«Bd for upon the principlea already explained.

Sir Join liafaham aappoaca liicr«((lypoics to liave
been the origin of the wonhip of ananab ; the figure
and the thii^ signified, being aa he auppuass. so con.
nected, that both bagu to be held equally aacred.
Thia ia by no aacana improbable, thou^ no direct
praof of it ia lo be had. It aeems certain, howaver,
that hier^glrphica were often ei^T*ved on gaaai^ aa
a kind of a^gieal apaO; Iheae gcma were icrnKl
AaaaXAS ; tha^ were exhibilad by certain corrupted
Chriaiiana, aalivas of Egypt, who had mixed a great
deal of I'aganiam with their Christianity : many of
are still to be met with in the cabinets of the cu-
Thcae abraxaa wo* aupcrscded among the au-
peiatitioaa oriantela by teliamaas.

The talgect of hiOTaRlTphics lias baan fVaqncntly
treated oC Among the anriante, Harm ApoU» or
HarmfoUt, wrMe a matiaa exprtaalv on the subject,
lo iiinilaiii liwra, ana of the moat labortooa writers on
tMnniyphsaa waa the learned Jeauit Kincitxa. Hit
fi!dyas JBmUmeut oentaina a great ooUcotion of curi-
(wa panicmari ; but hia explanariani are ftnciiul, and
indicate littir judgment. In the aaoaad book of Mont-
fiiacaa'a AmtufmUit* is given a geanal account of hie-
ragtypbicB, iUuatrated with accurate angraviiig*. Hy far
the maat ii^aiioaa aad philnaaphirsl account, both of
tha hiataay and aatara af hietMyphics, is given by
Wartanrtonia the 4th book oftha AJasae L^fiaMlaa. The
Bishop haa not, haanarar, baan earaiid to
betweea aaabliais in general, and hieroglyphica |
ly so eailad. Or E. D. ( larkc. in hia T*wU l^aiy
pabUshad, aamteiaB, bat bjr no BMana upon i ■iliiii
graanda, tla«l the hisiraglyphic chaiactara were tha lat«
teraof an ■itiwl alphabat, aad tha more
forma nrobably a aenea of monograms. () )

HI£iiCKiIiAMMATI.«iT,(framii(M,i(o4'*n<ly(-^.
itmttt *m, « mruer,) an order of priesta aracaig the an>
eiaal Sgnriwa. To theas was luiBwilted wa ava of
the lawBgyphha. Iha aapoaition of rrygiana dodrinei,
and the auparinlandanee of tha Egrptian learning in
genaraL TImv waaa nftedad aa a kmd of proplieu ;
and to aateblish their raiiatelicn Ihr ihia, they madaaae
of their kaowladga of taa heavenly bedioa, or nietaatic
phcnoMna, to anpoae upon the paopla. Tbcy were
alwayaacaa the penon of the king, to whom they ware
next in dignity, and were eaaBptod from all civil an-
plnvf<n<nt. \\'ti.-ii Egypt becune a Roman provhwe
t .^. (>;

. : . ^ 1 , tha art of divining futurity from
' tha MtriJBM whan in the act of bang aAr>
ed op. 'im Drnturtan and Sacairicc (>)

ilietagfy-

|>hioi

I

i;

Hippo-
crates.

H 1 G 54 H I P

nighgate HIOHGATE is a village in Middlesex, about four of the peaks of Himaleh, seen from Patna, is more Hinckley

I miles north of London, deligl»tf«lly situated on the top thnn 20,000 feet above Nepaul, or about 23,000 feet "
Hiro»lfh. ,nj sjjes q( one of tlie hicbest hills in the county, above the level of the sea. The country declines in
^"^^f"^^ commanding the most beautiful and extensive prospects height from the summit of these mountains to the .
over Essex, Surry, and Kent, in one direction, and Hert- south, the surface being irregularly mountainous to the
fordchire, Bedfordshire, and Buckingliamshire, in ano- borders of Bengal, Oude, and Delhi, where the plains
ther. It consists principally of the villas of the opu- begin, which stretch to the sea. Several of the tribu-
lent merchants, &c. of London, and its buildings are tary streams of the Indus, and probably the Indus it-
equal, if not superior, to any in the neighbourhood of self, have their origin from the western side of these
the metropolis. In order to avoid the steep hill, it was mountains It is supposed that the sources of the San-
proposed to cut a tunnel through it, which was begun poo, or Burram-pooter, and its tributary streams, are
in 1808. The roof of it, however, fell in at\er the separated only by a narrow range of snow clad peaks,
work had made some progress, and it was found ne- from the sources of the streams which form the Ganges,
cessary to make an o|)en cut through the hill. This See Rennel's Memoir, and Asiatic Researches ; Hamil-
great improvement is now completed ; and the London ton's Gazetteer ; and our articles India and Thibet.
road passes below an arch, which it became necessary HINCKLEY is a town of England, in Leicester-
to build for the purpose of carrying a cross road over shire, situated near the borders of Warwickshire. The
the cut. town is divided into the Borough, and the Bond with-

HIGHLANDS. See Scotland. out the liberties. The limits of the borough were for-

HILDESHEIM, isthenameofaGerman bishopric, merly those of the town, which has been extended by
-ibunded in 822 by Charlemagne. It extends about 50 or the successive addition of four streets, the Bond End,
60 miles from east to west, and about 35 from north to the Castle End, the Stocken Head, and the Duck Pud-
south, and contains about 5i square German miles. The die. The parish church is a neat large structure, with
soil of the greater part of the district is good, and pro- a modern built spire, erected in 1788, on the old tower,
duces abundance of corn, flax, hops, and vegetables. Tiie ' The body of the church seems to have been built about
southern districts are hilly, and covered with forests ; the 13th century. Its length, from the chancel to the
some of the hills containing excellent quarries and iron west door, is 6"6 feet, and its width near the chancel
mines. The wood is principally oak, beech, ash, and about 80 feet. There are three other places of worship,
birch. The diocese contains l6 bailiwicks, 75 manors, and a Roman Catholic chapel. The town-hall, school-
13 towns, sat villages, and 85,000 inhabitants, with an house, and ball-house, are very curious, but in a ruinous
annual revenue of 250,000 rix-dollars. The principal state.

towns are Hildesheim, Peina, Rosenthal, and Marien- Hinckley was once of much greater extent, and was

burg. After the secularization of the diocese in 1803, encircled with a wall and deep ditch, traces of which

it was given among the indemnities to the King of are still to be seen. The part called the Jewry- wall is

Prussia. After the peace of Tilsit, it formed part of said to have been part of the temple of Janus. There

the kingdom of Westphalia. is near the river a mount, supposed to have been a Ro-

HILDESHEIM, or Hillesheim, the Bennopolis of man fortification ; and near the church are the ruins of
the ancients, is a town of Germany, and the capital of a bath, with three mineral springs. Tesselated pave-
the diocese, of the same name. It is situated on a rug- menls, and other Roman antiquities, have been disco-
ged declivity, watered by the river Innerste ; about 6 vered here. This town is said to form the middle of
leagues S. E. of Hanover, and 10 W. S. W. of Bruns- the highest ground of England, and commands a view
wick. The town is tolerably large, but is irregularly of no fewer than 50 churches. Its principal manu-
built, and old fashioned. It is divided into the Old facture is that of coarse stockings of cotton, thread,
and New Town, which were united in 1583. The and worsted. A larger quantity of stockings is sup-
principal public buildings are the cathedral. Holy posed to be made here than in any town in England.
Cross Abbey, the Gymnasium Andreanum, about eight The number of frames in the town and neighbourhood
Protestant churches, and several monasteries. The ca- is computed at 1200, which give employment to nearly
thedral belongs to the Roman Catholics, and its bishop 3000 persons. The town is likewise noted for the
was the only catholic one in all Saxony. It is a richly goodness of its ale.

ornamented Gothic building, and contains among its In 1811, the parish of Hinckley, including Dadling-

antiquities the celebrated Pagan monument of Irmin- ton and Stoke Golding, contained

sal, which fronts the great choir. It is a column whicli Inhabited houses 1097

serves to support a chandelier of several branches. Families I '.'2*

Population 12,600. Do. emplc^ed in trade and manufactures . . 1010

HIMALEH, or Himalaya mountains, the Emodus, Males 2872

Himaus, or Imatis of the ancients, is a stupendous Females 3186

•"x range of mountains, which bound Hindostan on the

north, and separate it from the country of Great and Total population 6058

Little Thibet. In East Long. 76°, and North Lat. See mchol's Hisfori/ of Hinckley ; and the Beauties

34" 30', the Himaleh range joins the mountains of of Enghmd and Wales, vol. ix. p. 473.

Cashmere on the west, the northern range of the latter HINDOSTAN. See India.

being as it were a continuation of the former. The HINZUAN. See Johanna.

Himaleh mountains being supposed to commence at HIPPARCHUS. See AsTnoNOMy,vol.ii.p. 590,591.

this point, take a S. E. direction to Bootan, and form HIPPIAS. See Athens.

the boundary between that country and Thibet, in about HIPPOCRATES, commonly called the Father of

90" E. Long, and 28° N. Lat. stretrfiing still farther to Physic, was the most renowned physician of ancient

the east they terminate to the north of Assam. The Greece, and the oldest medical writer of whom there

nver Burram-pooter is supposed to wind round the are any authentic works now extant. He was a native

eastern extremity of the range about 95° of East Long, of the island of Cos, which had been long celebrated in

It appears from Col. Crawford's observations, that ohc the annals of medicine, being the seat of one of \kt

HIPPOCRATES.

53

fflyiftl* foundgd bj tlte Aadepiadea or deaceiidanU of
JEacukpiat. Hippocntct hinuelf belonged to tlut f«-
milT, and >• reckoned by his bio^apben the LStli in
• diract lino firom that penonage. Amonz the number
of his lilt— tiiri waa Podalirius, the aon of ^.xulapiut,
who, akng with hi* brother Madtaon, followed the
Graaan army in the Trojan war. Hia genealo^ by
tlic mother'! side wm equally honourable ; aa, in thu
line, bo VM the SOth daaccndant of Herculea. Theac
gmmiamm may be jabuloua, but they were creditetl
aHMM^tnc 4Bident», and tended to increase the veneni-
tion in which the character of thia great physician was
bdd. Very few details of the life ot' Hippocrates have
I transmitted to us ; bat tfao iingular eminence of
I characler makes the biogranher dwell with pleasure
liirwiMtai'trrf. which, in the life of another man,
' nnworthy of sctantion. Hcnco a variety
of unimportant rumouia are ataloH, and the arguinents
foe MoA gainst their nnAdbility are stadioosly diafiajd
Ho was born in the first jmt of the SOth Olympiad,
or 4.58 faara before Christ, in the rc%n of Artaxerxes
Longimanos of Persia, and was the cuntaHtpurary of
Socrsteo. Herodotus, and Thucydides. Hia lather He-
raclidea, and his grandfather Hippocrates the dder,
who were both eminent physicians, bestowed modi
pains on kis education in literature and general scjence,
as well as in medicine. He studied poltte litcnture
and elonooneo — dsr Cotgiaa of Looatium, aoalobraCad
rhaCoriaan. He is said to ha*« stndicd tbo pbyaicnl
sciwiCM onder Democritus; but it rather nniiws that
ho vaa not acousinted with that nhilosoobor t31 bo waa
noro admoM in liio. and akmay eriaantad m a n*>
dkal practitioocr. Ho mjof^ mm the rirniHMtsnMs
aChJainrestfli^andthoyritof thoplacaof hianliTi.
ty, great iaritameiits to aadieal stadioa. and gnat ad-
n^^|w lor the pwaactiOB of tlw. Und« those fa.
vourable inspieea, he aoMirsd an aarlv nBtk hr tbo
modjcal ptiifanuM, —d dewtad himiifr to it nm dtm
whh anlear and aasiduity. Bwidas st«idyii^ in tha
school balonging to his natire iaUndl, ha ataified the
UnnHtic madwiiio aadv Haradieaa^ by whan it was
tatm^ai, and ha tnTaOad mmtk la Gneea. Thaasalr,
and Tlmsa^ vbaa ho made aMnr ohaarvalions on taa
hiHoryof ijpliiiiife ii TU gnMar part af Ma

1 Kfc aaooM lohava bMB spent at UrisH, in
Ono Aadnoa, wha wiataoa thahistery of

■■iCBS a liaa iMoaai^Ua moliva fer hia do>
H* says that ha afaMUMd hfaasair in or.
dcr to aacane Avm tha paaithiMBt duo to some hre^
niss wUch ha had i williil hi tha library of tha ma.
deal school of Cnidos, whare ha was said to ha*o tran*
softad soaaoof tha hooka, and then bonad thaorigi*
nals. This aocoaat, howaMT, snlifaly ori^aalad in tha
of the Caklian sAaai, la whick Aadnaa ha.
tha prannts of which were cwoUaiaitad
It ia rnfimnaunt with the

«ra fimsirifitinri in all the
dactVHipfaoalaa. Othan mid. that ha fled
ho had capted soma iMcriptiana m the tanple of iEscu.
lapius. dstaiUiM Ibacans of nek persona^ who tbua ra-
rorded their scknowlsdfmsBts ta that deity. This re.
port is equally graandlaw with the other, and doaa not
conaMMBd with aav thing tiMt we know of the tandaa.
ries of ancient prv^idier. Ha seems to hare alaa tra.
veiled in Africa sod Asia ; bat the chief •"mt at his
travels were on the Europoan CBntinrut. where he ft».
qacntly vi<tted different citim and coanthcs fur the
parpose of relieving epi!—- -"temper*, with whidi
thiqr wwe occaaionaPy tfi Afcifc . dresdlul pev

tOaMt Jiarvailad aaMBg tiic inynana, he wm tamratly

invited by that people to favour them with llie advan*
tages of his medical skill ; but, on inquiring into va.
rious drrumstances attending that epidemic, he coo.
eluded that his services would be inefl'ectual. He de-
clined the journey ; and finding; rraton of apprehension
that the same disease would extend to Thessaly and
Greaoa, he sent his sons to these countries, for the pur-
pom of preparing them to meet the visitation with pro-
per precautions. In a plague at Athens, he is said to
nave contributed much to the health of the city, by or-
dering large 6res to be lighted for purifying the air,
and by burning various perfumes in private houses,
in the maimer of the Egyptians. His sons, abo,

£re material assistance. Triese accounts, however,
not wril oorrespood with historical dates. The
gnat plague of Athens, described by Thucydides, hsp.
pcned worn Hippocrates was only iliirty years of age,
and could not have sons capable of giving medical di-
rections. The inhabitants of AbdMa, observing that
thair ftUow-dtisen Domociitus had contracted mack
sinyilariy of mannara, that he had become addicted
to naawMnto and ill- timed laughter, and aedudad
himself from society, conceived him to be insane, and
invited HippocratM to go and pronounce a judgment
on his case, and take him under (lis medical care. Hip-
pocrates went, and finding Democritus a man of deep ■
rr starch, who engaged himself with unwearied assidui-
ty in philosopiucal puimits, pronounced him the wisest
man in Abdarik Ten talanta ware offered to him on this
ooGHioa, hat ho dadiaedaoeapling of any recompense.

KiqgsaBd paiacH an said to have made different st.
taatpta to enftga ban in their service. We are told.
that PHrdicaa, King of Macadon, invited him to his
ooait ta can hit aan of a oonsamptioa ; and that Hip*
pocratos diicerarad tha whale eoapUint to consist m
tha worfcinm of a aacrrt poaaon which the young man
rhiridliit iSr Phyla, ilia aiisltaM of his faUier. This
atocT. kawavar, oeiiicidw aa exactly with the accounts
of the cam aarfttaaed by Erasiatratus on Antigoniu,
the aan of Salaaeaa Nicaaor, that we are foreed to
coadudo it ta be ffdmlous ; and it must be oonfeased.
that the other anecdatw of his life do not rest on the
BMSt mtirfai<<ajf avideuca. They are all derived from
the laawaoarca, a ««Herrk>n of letters and other pieces,
called t« t^imm, iwBtthnw publiahed with the works
of Uippaaalea.

' * him large SBaM,aad a splendid ea.
taindaetkim toenler hisaarrioedarii^a
laaue which deaolatad aomeof the pre.
vineas, and aLo the arauaa of PMaia. Hiupocratm re-
hmd the eCw in a haaghly slik^ oBfrewng his eoa.
lamet of hsrfMriana, and tha indlgiiily to which ha
waald find hfaaaalf saMaelad bjr laavum: the Orecka to
to wat people. This uiuicceKsary
_ ■ an raress af national ■ hly

olandad Artasiiaaab who than demandail -: u.. uiha-
bitanu of Cos. that Hipfoctatea ahoukl ha dalirend
into his hands, Ihfiatwiim tham with the extremity
ofhisreivaaBoeincaMaffoAisaL The people of Co*,
howrrer, ware too honaanMa^ and too mudt stt ached
to thdr illustriaaa countrymaa^ to yield to these iaiiau*
dating thraata ; and Hippocntaa remained unmoleated.

Tha bigk diataftw af this phyaidan gare hun,
on one oocaaion, an o|ipartunity of performing an
important political sarrioe for his luitive country,
which he tenderly loved. The Athenians threatened
the island of Coa with a formidable invaaion. Hip.
pocratcs solidtad the aiaistsnce of the people of ThM*
saly and the adjoining countries, and at the same
time sent Themlui his ton to Athetis, to avert the

ilippo.
crsn*.

56

HIPPOCRATES.

storm by nep[otiation, and sage remonstrances on the
baneful teniJency of ambition. The exertions both of
the father and the son were successful. The Thessa-
lians, the Nf essenians, and the states of the Peloponne-
sus, engageil to espouse the interests of the island of
Cos; and the Athenians, partly out of regard for Hip-
pocrates, and partly from the apprehensions which so
much resistance created, abandoned their hostile de-
signs.

Hippocrates entertained a deep sense of the import-
ance of the duties of the professional character. He
spared no pains which were necessary tor his own im-
provement, and tlie successful practice of his art. He
was aware that medicine requires more assiduous at-
tention than other employments; he exacted of all
his pupils an oath, binding them to certain rigid prin-
ciples of <iuty, and, among other things, to engage,
that they would enter no house whatever e.xcept for
the purpose of relieving those who needed their assist-
ance. This rule, if taken according to the strict mean-
ing of the words, appears somewhat fantastic, as it sup-
poses that the number of patients and of practitioners
should- always be nicely accommodated to one another.
It shews, however, the abhorrence which Hippocrates
had of any degree of negligence and frivolity in the
medical character. He was ready at all hours to attend
on a call ; and submitted with as much willingness to
all those minute attentions which were necessary for
the welfare of his patients, as to professional offices
which were apparently the most dignified. It also re-
dounded to his honour, that his attention was not less
directed to the gratuitous object of preventing, than to
the lucrative employment of curing disease. Of this
he has left a testimony in his writings, by treating on
the subject of diet and of water. These features of
disinterestedness would not merit great praise in mo-
dern times, in which they are so common, and are re-
quisite to establish a character, and are therefore of-
ten either mimicked for this express purpose, or avoid-
ed if they interfere with false and fashionable notions
of dignity. They acquire greater lustre from the con-
sideration of the different sort of manners which pre-
railed in the days of Hippocrates, as well as the com-
plete superiority to intrigue by which, in his conduct,
they were accompanied.

His zeal for science and humanity was rendered ef-
ficient by his excellent talents, and the weight of his
personal character. His sagacity in observing nature
was a resource to him on every emergency ; and the
accuracy of his judgment led him to resist the useless
frivolities which superstition had introduced into medi-
cal practice. Inviolable secrecy, justice, and good faith,
marked the whole of his conduct. Uniting dignity with
humanity in his deportment, he employed firmness or
complacency on such occasions as called for the exer-
cise of either quality. He spoke but little ; and his
language was masculine and concise. His actions were
never conducted with agitation ; no prescription was
given with precipitance ; no circumstances were ne-
glected ; nor was the result ever left in any degree to
accident. If at any time he failed of success from want
of previous experience adapted minutely to any indivi-
dual case, he acknowledged his failure in the most in-
genuous manner. In his writings, he sometimes warns
his readers against mistakes and errors which he him-
self had committed, and which were attended with fa-
tal consequences. He exhibited in all respects a bright
example of the qualities which he himself enumerates,
with so much eloquence and good sense, as contributing

to the perfection of the medical character. Hence his
precepts on that subject ac(jiiire a double authority.

Hippocrates lived to a great ape; some say 109,
others, however, make it much less. He died at La-
rissa, and was buried between that city and Gyrtona.
He left among numerous other disciples, his two sons,
Thessalus and Draco, both eminent physicians, and his
son-in-law Polybus, who had been a fiivourite pupil, and
afterwards became a celebrated teacher, and arranged
and published the works of his friend and master. In
statues and paintings Hippocrates is represented with
his head covered, which is different from the usual
manjier of the Greeks, and was probably done on ac-
count of his having been so great a traveller, as that
was the only description of individuals who were uni-
formly thus distinguished.

Hippocrates has always been regarded as the father
of his art. The honour in whicli he was held, both
during his life and after his death, was very high.
The inhabitants of Argos erected a statue of gold to
him. The Athenians more than once voted him a
crown of gold, and initiated him in their great reli-
gious mysteries. This last was a favour very seldom
conceded to strangers. Although he did not cultivate
{general philosophy except as subservient to medicine,
he exemplified so ably its spirit, that Plato, Aristotle,
and others, looked up to him as a master, and some-
times commented on his opinions. Aristotle even fol-
lowed him as a model of stile. His works have been
held in high esteem in all subsequent ages ; they have
been translated or commented on by Galen, Celsus,
and numerous other physicians of the most eminent
genius, both in ancient and modem times.

The treatises which have gone under his name are 72
in number ; but they are not all of equal authenticity.
Doctrines so contradictory are sometimes contained in
them, as shew them plainly to have been the works of
distinct authors. Some are probably of much more an-
cient origin than Hippocrates himself. Some are thought
to have been written by his grandfather, who bore the
same name : and several have been either much altered
and interpolated, or entirely written by subsequent
authors. Those which are universally allowed to be
genuine are, " the Aphorisms," " the Prognostics,"
the first and third book " on Epidemics;" and the
book " on the influence of air, water, and local situa-
tion." Some are regarded as supposititious, because
they deviate from the character of Hippocrates, as
shown in the works now enumerated, both in solidity,
method, and correctness of language ; while others
bear only in part the character of thjs master, and in-
cline the critical reader to suspend his judgment of
their authenticity. These last seem to have been such
as Hippocrates left in an unfinished state, or the sub-
stance of notes or copies taken from his prelections by his
pupils. Such are " The Four Prognostics ;" " the Pre-
dictions ;" the 2d, 5th, 6th, and 7th books " on Popular
Diseases ;" that " on Diet in acute Diseases ;" the books
" on the Parts of the Human Body;" "on Aliment;" "on
the Recoveries that happen on critical Days ;" and " on
the Humours." There is considerable difficulty, how-
ever, in deciding in the negative respecting the works said
to belong to a particular author. We may give a judg-
ment on the positive authenticity of certain perform-
ances, which bear the stamp of the genius and manner
of a masterly writer. But such writers often produce
works which are not equal to their genius, works which
have been written under inauspicious circumstances,
which have diminished their attachment to their sub-

nippo-

cratcs.

HIPPOCRATES.

sn

j«ct, impftired their confidence in thiwiwltw, and ob-
structed the fliU esercue of their talent. Great dif-
feiences iMijr alao depend on the period of life. Juve>
nile perAnaaaeM oMjr be ooaipentively Lune or vola-
tile, and old age briaga along with it a decay of the
mental powoit, whidi BMqr apfiMr in die litenfyper-
fomancn to which it give* otigin. Diflcieacai or the

cies ot' doctrine pHwincai hf dmt§at tt opuMn which
have Inkea nlorr between ttw tiaw at which differeot
woefca baee been cnnipcoed.

The princinal editiona of the worka of Hj^pocratea
in the original are, thoae of Aldus at Veaiee m ISM;
and of Frobeniu* at BmIo in 1538, both in folio.

The edition* of Greek aceompanied by Latin tranaU'
tione are, those of Hieronynua Mercurialie, at Venice,
in 1578 ; of Zwii^ter, at Basle, in 1579 ; of Anutiui
FbeMos, at Frandott, in 1595 ; of J. A. \ ander Linden,
at Leydcn, in 1665; of Renatua Chartrier, with tlte
worita of Galen, at Paria; and of Stephen Mack at
Vienna, in 17iS, 1749. antl >759>

The editiam of L«tin IrMiilatiiwi, wkhont the ofigi-
nal, aw that of Crataadar at Baale^ br sereral traaa*
kteea, m U26; of M. F. Cakma, at Rome, in I5C5,
fran M8S. in tlM Vatican; of J. Coranrioa, at Venlee,
in 15*5 : and tikat of Aantiaa Fotaine, at Fnadbrt, in
1"' ■ "-r,. byWcchel.

.cratea was the ftit antbor who anpUed phi.
loMjpaiciii iiaermiin to medicine, the aect or the Ue«-
BaOMs looked np to hia ai their bead. But be dal
not enhiyato tbaoey to tbo
experience : he wm ooe of tko

earjr ^ ^^_^

of foad InglMiMiSiJiatftaliaMat wUdk be wrote.

batw

Ittaor^of tkai

af boaitb

»; and ha applied the hbm docbino
of the humaa badr. In

wWdkhaMlbd

TMeagaot ha aoarfdaad aa tha caaaa of
the aninial ocMMBijr, hj attracting what i* good, ra.
taining and pnnariaarit, and rtjectinK what M Mper>
iaoaaandboilM. Tbo manair m wtaefc be atceanu
Ar Iba fcnaaliun of the brain, the baaaik tba aiem.
faranaa, and all the earioaa parta, Imm that air of ab-
■mditf which ia aaircrwl in tbo nImieaJ phihnephy
eC tha flHMBilik HiB aaalaH^ mm WMWwtkagy aia not
rwy MIf ma^imadlm Ifca waria wbch »aeo reached

OOT tiHM% MM M9 flVMHOV ■■MnBBt tUtd IWKuuL

He <fieidaa tha cewrilMM pofttor tha auBMl eeoBom V
into the aolida, tha iaid% a*d tlH ipWa. Tha aaiida

He dnndaa tha oaaMiiMai pofti or tha auHu
into the aolida, tha iaid% aad tlH MWa.
are tha rwHahiJM fttta, Iha tM$ Iba p«to
and tba apiwH thoia »hii> giea ■ation to
On tfBi aiiiilw. failiaml a» with miaa

deeply skilled in the diagnosis and prognosis of dis-
eaaea. By far the greater part of his descriptions are
still recognised aa accurate by all who follow him in
the path of careful obscnation. The article in which
his observation:) are most deficient, is the pulse, which
he so much overlooketi, that some have supposed him
altogether unacquaintetl with the changes to which it
is liable. It was chiefly from the degree of heat, and
the difficulty of respiration, that he judged of the state
of a fever.

In the treatment of diseases, he inctdcated a pro*
feoad respect for the progress of nature, whom he re.
||anledas the arbiter and judge of diseaaea, and as hav.
lag Mrtaia Mlatarjr otjecta in view- in the greater part
of thooe ■Boeeaaive changes in the constitution which
they implied. This doc^ne is in fact the same which
has been laaintainwl by various later theorists, under a
difierant set of taraM, and with slight modifications,
such as the mrcAmut of Van Helmont. and the vi4 medi-
calrii Hmtmne at Dr CuUen. The opinions of Hipp».
crates on this general point made hiin unwilling to use
any means for interrupting the course of nature a* ex-
hibited in the phenomena of disease : hence his prac-
tiee u culpably feeble ,- and those whom an admira.
tion of hia geniua has led to follow him cloaely, have
baaa too ptaae la mtMf tbeasselves with the exercise
of Iraeisy tha eoone of diseaaei rather than to re-
sist tbiir poMieaa. Tbeao ha«a boon noet mimeraue
in Fmoa, wtioM the stuchr of the Greek ' ,,. is
tnated as a separate branch of cducatiofi. .po-

ontic matbod ai doaoanrntad tha method ut cxpecta.
tma. and is oBtoiM aa lariMioi aad aore. But it do.
■ervas ■■ aoow mmtan, the saicaeui of the Roman
pbyBciao AaelipiadHb who oalled it ■ mere meditation
en dntb, a aalialuda to nboiiiii bow a lii^ea)>e would
toiiiiiual% aad what Uaph of time it would reqoire to
^—Muj tbo patint. Hmpocratoa indeed recammenda
•— • f''^^ r'— i^fae ler the pornoae of aidiiiff the
•aod uNHlaMM of m/Ou% and gently curreciing soow
aiigbt daviaiioiM iackknt to it. Hi* precepu in thb
doportmaat are delieotad with aooM lonnality, in cao<
Unnty to tba style of tba oariy pbiloaophy ; but they
are net chamciai'iiad bv that onptinces and Nnmcaa-
in« ayalaty wbicb oAn prevailed, and they exU*

bit a jawsm of remark which waa aatirtly bfa own.
Hi, 1 _; :_! ^^^ r .

oral priaespia waa, to euro eontnneo by eoa-
eald fay boat, heal by cold, avaeaation by
I, and rmilotiuw by ovacaotian. la idiopathic

Ibewbala. tlaat

of d»-

giea
aad ap with
, ba oMabUshai bis doolrino of tbo
eoHu Hodhfidatbobamoon. for
blood, the pliiyi, tba yallow bila. Md tlie bhck bite,
aad distiqgBiakoa Ifcesa by tba ijmmiioB or tba
af boat or of moMtam. TbaUaodiswi
tba pblagm cold Mdmoiat; the ycUow bite warm and
dfy.anrthebtecli bite ootd aad dry. The amat ealaa.

Mayartaof tba ailliap af Hipp aa aia Uabisto.

rtmtHi Ia iininiKli g tboae, wo fad hit a

6ilhlUaadtebaria«abHrmiflNto; hmahawas
«aL,t& mat* I.

by ovacaatian. la idiopathic
Crvon.babsHaB with tfrnngalalion of diet, which con.
siMed ia praserifaing abatinmoe, with a verv sparing
allowance avoa of liquids, for three or four (iays, that
no nwrlad BMltar might he added to the system,
white nataia tfaiaw off that which wss already present.
This was samaadsd by the exhibition of varioos liquids
ull the fourteenth day. and it was n<4 till a late period
that any aolid fisod was allowed. Medicinal prepor*.
alaa long deferred, and wnasWid of gentle
■demotica. In inflammatory complaints bia
pnctict wae aMra active ; he aaed fimomatioaa, blood.
te<ti^g,inHpin^iBg. He also save oonawadi wine and
are, it must be aoalbmed, leae correct
trictan anti-
. ^ ia oanima (a eoltection of

poa in tba cavity of tha tbaanK)ba int drew out the
patjenfa tongua, thai paanda liltte imtatmg liqaii),
prepared from the root of aram, Ann holtebora or oep.

C, into tha tnchaa, ftw the purpooe of axdthif a vio.
IMngh, Md tbaa diacbargbiy tba puraknt matter.

Mtppo-
cratci.

H I P

58

H I S

I>e U Hirr.

irippoentu He was also in the practice of shaking violently the
patient's body, with a view to detach the matter from
the parts to wliich it adhered. In diseases of the head
he first applied fomentitions, and then excited sneezing
for bringing off the phle-;jni

In pharmacy he made extensive improvements. His
preparations are diversified in their composition and
consistence, so as to answer minutely the various pur-
poses of external medicine. He paid great attention to
the diversities of state, and the shades of morbid sensa-
tion in diseased parts, and nicely adapted to them the
forms of his remedies. In this respect he may often
serve for a model to correct the gross ideas of those
vho exclusively venerate the agency of powerful sim-
ples. As a surgical author, Hippocrates had great me-
rit ; though the vigour of his praftice in this department
sometimes exceeded the bounds of moderation. He
placed great reliance on the revulsion prodnced by
powerful discharges by means of blood-letting, and
which was assisted by the use of cupping instruments ;
and when this failed, he formed extensive and deep ul-
cers, by the actual cautery. A full account of the opi-
nions, theoretical and practical, of this ancient author,
•would fill a large volume. In this country, an ac-
quaintance with them is, even among medical men,
reckoned an object of curiosity ratlier than an attain-
ment necessary to the physician ; but the perusal of
the works of Hippocrates himself has an excellent ten-
dency to cherish in the mind of a professional man,
that zeal for the objects of his aft, and that keen and
persevering attention to his duties, which rentiers his
life most s.itisfactory to himself, and most useful to so-
ciety. See J^Clerc's Histoirede la Medicine; Fabricius;
also the Life oj' Hippocrates, by Soranus; and the intro-
duction to Pinel's NosngraiMe P/iilosophique. {H. D.)

HIPPOCRENE. See Helicon, vol. x. p. 703.

HIPPOPOTAMUS. See Mammalia.

HIRE, Philip de la, an eminent and industrious
French astronomer, was born at Paris on the 18th
March 1740. His father was painter to the king, and
•instructed his son in the same art, particularly in draw-
ing, and such branches of the mathematics as related
to his profession. In the year 1761, three years after
he had lost his father, Dela Hire went into Italy to re-
establish his health, and to study those fine models of
painting and sculpture which every artist was ambi-
tious to imitate ; but, during the three years which he
spent in that country, he discovered that he was more
fitted to excel in astronomy and geography than in the

fine arts, and he henceforth devoted his whole time to De U Hire
these interesting studies. !'

Upon his return to Paris, he was nominated one of ._P*"'_*'
the members of the Academy of .Sciences; and in 1699, '

he was named Pensionnaire Geomeire. Between the
years 1678 and 1718, he published no fewer than Itvo
hundred and fort rf- four memoirs on almost every branch
of mathematics and natural philosophy.

When the great Colbert had resolved to make a cor-
rect map of France, De la Hire was associated with
M. Picard in this important duty, which occupied him
for several years. In 1 6S3, he was employed in con-
tinuing to the north of Paris the meridian which Picard
had begun in l6"6'9, while Cassini was employed in ex-
tending it to the south. The death of Colbert having
put an end to this great undertaking, De la Hire was
next employed in the formation of the great water-
works with which Louis XIV. embellished his palaces.
De la Hire filled also the situation of royal professor
of mathematics and architecture, and was much esteem-
ed among his countrymen. His name, however, is not
associated with any great invention or discovery; and
we are called upon only to admire the extent of his
knowledge, and the persevering industry which he ex-
hibited both in acquiring it for himself and in commu-
nicating it to others. The works which he published
separately were,

1. Nouveaux Elemens des Sections Coniques. Paris,
1678, 1 vol. 12mo.

2. La Gnomonique. 1682.

S. Traite du Nivellement de M. Picard, avec des
additions. Paris, iGiii.

i: Sectiones Conicas in novem Libris distribute.
Paris, 1685, folio.

5. Traite du mouvement des eaux et des autres corps
fluides ; ouvrage Posthume de M. Mariotte. 1686.

6. Ecole des Arpenteurs. 1 689.

7. Traite de Mecanique. 1695, 1 vol. 12mo.

8. Tabulae Astronomiae Ludovici Magni jussu et
munificentia exarataa. 1702.

De la Hire died on the 28th April 1718, and left be-
hind him a son, Gabriel Philip de la Hire, who was
much esteemed as a physician, and who published seve-
ral papers on medicine and natural philosophy in the
Memoirs of the Academy from 1699 to 1720.

HIRUDO. See Intestina.

HIRUNDO. See Ornithology.

HISPANIA. See Spain.

HISPANIOLA. See St Domingo.

HISTORY.

niitory.

Diviuon of
the subject

Advantages
of the study
of history.

1 N this article it is proposed, in the first place, to point
out and explain the various advantages of the study of
history ; secondly, to enumerate those branches of study
which ought to be entered upon, previous to, or con-
temporary with the study of history; thirdly, to give
a brief and rapid sketch of the order in which ancient
and modem general histories may most conveniently
and advantageously be read ; fourthly, to point out the
order in which the history of particular countries may
be read, so that they may be illustrative of one another;
fifthly, to notice the different species of history besides
what is emphatically called History.

I. With respect to the advantages which may be de-
rived from the study of history, they are various and
important : if the value of that department of science

Historj'.

is to be rated highest, which combines advantages of
the most obvious and beneficial nature, history pos-
sesses a very strong claim to our attention and study.
It is equally attractive to the unreflecting and phi-
losophical mind : the former it interests by the excita-
tion of novelty; the latter by the usefulness and import-
ance of the general principles which may be deduced
from the facts which it records. But periiaps the uti-
lity and value of this branch of study cannot be placed
in a more obvious and conspicuous point of view, than
by stating that it combines amusement of the deepest
interest ; the exercise and improvement of the best fa-
culties of man ; and the acquisition of the most import-
ant species of knowledge.

History, considered merely as a source of amusement, iimusemem

A source of

HISTORY.

59

mtrnj'

the

i» intmitelr preftnble to norelt tod nmunm, the pe*
rani ^ wiHGh tpo frequently debiliute* the intellect
bjr ittflHBaw the iaagination, and corrupts the heart
bj the IoAhmm of wlut may justly be rwankd as mo-
ral pcJaoOL Whaterer valuable unprotMMM are made
upon the mind bv Bctitious adventures, the same in
kuid, though, perhapa, (generally not equal in d^ree,
mt laade t^ the penital of history ; and while work* of
fialioo mn not in their nature capal>le, in general. o£
any oUmt naea than the authors had in view, which
miMt aMlMBrilT be verv limited ; true hiatory, being
I « the eandact of Providcnoe, ha* infinite
mmj be rcnfdcd •• an inex-
haojtible mine of the Boat wlnable knowledge. It haa
been vcnr Jiutiy rw—rttml, that " work* of fiction re*
■able IMM ■«««*'— which we contrive to illustrate
the principlea of phileeophy. Mch a* globe* and orreries,
the a*e* of whicb extend no farther than the view* of
human iogenuitr : where** real history rc*emble* the
experiment* made by the air.puinn, the ooodenaing en-
gine, or electrical nacfaine, which exhibit the opera-
tion* of nature, and the God of nature hinuelf, who*e
woriu are the nobleat Mib)ect of contemplation to the
huniMt mind, and are the ground-work and materials
of the Boat aBtanaive and 11*11 fwl knowledge."

~ a highor ■■• of hklerjr lata improve the ■ndar>

the jndgRMOt: hy tbnifmg

iaiotha

^tha areata wbid it onlfaldi, the

the attention of the and ia Aud. and
aolafgad: iHaoa ave M^wred the
eal^ of diaoDvoriaf ^nicker, and that flexibility
•teadiaaM *o aaoaaMry to be fboMi in the
all aCun. that depend oo the
tion of other men. It ieagreat Iwt a prevalaot
take to wmpBB, that Urtorjr b falciilaiad to
the jaJgnMHt tmif on thaea aakjed* which arT oon
naetad with tha walfiae of the eommunity at Urge : it
ia nearly ia an oqnal li^gna wlralteil to enlighten the
jodgment on thoee that bear oa iadiriduai ntility aod
In thia ratpect tha adraatMa af hktary are
I than theae we dariva mai oar own iadi-
wiaaea; lor thoogh the ion
by the lattor will be more vivid, and
yet the kaowledgo we do-
Bonact, and eaaaaqoeMly a
batter (aidoto a% ia oar lotofcaaiw with the W(
Ar the inamiilm which it ptwat* are ganeialiy
ploto; the wbobiabefivea*; wharaaaiaraalHfcbCVory
Meoe open* very alowly, and we oaaaoqaantly aae bat
a oaatt part of a thin|^ at a tiaae ; hence we arc liable
to be deceived in oor jadmaot of iL

Tha hirtety af Giaac Bribda wiU iB«eiaBlly illaa.
trato the troth of the praeadi^ ramwka : if ««itend

i» ridi and vahtaUe ia ihie paint af view. Tlw rode
rtato in which thia ooontfy and ita ia>
emitted el the period of the Roman oomptcil,
cenHaMrtl with ita praat Mtaatioii, when it ha* at-
tained an wfinoclT highm ruik ia the acale of intailact
and power thaa Room ever reached, caaaot finl to act
aa • rtinuloa to the carioeity. to lama the vrioot
avcato which oocarred between them two ttatc* so di*>
BMtrically oppoeite. Beeidw thia mootbI aeuroe of
Mlaret and amawant, which the liitary ti Britam
koUaoat, there are many particular period* in it which
axe afaaartcouaUy calculated to cxdto aad gratify the*c
foelii^e. Thi* la conwtUring the hiatory of Great Bri>
tainjaiu leva* chaactCT; it fhrthar iUattntce our

preceding remarks, by the constant exercise which it Hutory.
alTord* for our judgment and penetration'; so tliat it may ""^"Y^^
be justly affirmed, that the faculties of the human mind
will derive from ita perusal a great acce*8ioa to their
strength.

But the great advantage to be derived from his- Maket us
tory, — and this advantage flows in the most direct acquHirtcd
manner, of the higfaeat character, and in the utmost

with the ms-
ehanum of

abundance from the hietory of Britain, — consists in this, ,00^..
that by means of it we gain our knowledge of the
mechanism of society ; of the reciprocal innuence of
national character, laws, and government; of those
cause* and circumstances, that have operated toward*
the production and a<lvancement, ur the destruction
aad retardation of dvil and religious liberty, and the
variou* brancbee of adence and hterature. It lead* to a
knowledge of man in hi* aodal relation* : it exhibit*
the variaoe operatjoaa of difcrcnt systems of polity up-
on hnman happineee. In a country which enjoys so
great a portion of dvil liberty as lia^pily falls to the lot
of the inhabitant* of the British empire, almost every
order of the coeomuoity has it* influence upon tl>e meo>
sure* of the legislative and the executive powers ; con-
■equently a knowledge of history should be diffused to
as wide an extent aa poaaible among them. A familiar
acquaintance with the hi*tary of tlieir country was, iu
the beet time* of the Roman repubhc, held to be es*en«
tially requiaito V> qualify youth for stations of dignity,
power, and profit, in the administration of public af-
fair*. Hence the bitteme** of the earcaam, uttered by
Maria*, when he a**eited, that in hi* degeiierale days,
mea of iUoatrioaa birth did not begin to read the tuo*
tory of their country till they were elevrted to the
hi^Mat oSoaa of the state, that is, aa he aaid, " they

then bsthoogiit
of tho aadiiatieaa nscnoBry far the pro,
perdiedorioofil.'^

Ia thia brief aoooMtatian of the prindpal use* to be
derived ftenthasladyof historr, it upresupposed that
bistorieal flMta at* bhoo the sub^ecU of mature reflec-
tion. He who i* lafiafiad with nerdy storing hi* mind
with a multiplidty of eveatsb even though thoee evcnta
OM^ be of the hi^teet dam in point of importance, and

Itooetablishor illaatrate the most uaefbl prin-
ciple^ will derive little profit fhm a great expencc of

coastant and Prtiamsn
M to have cle- ttuditB.

and diro>
of history can

^i!

which are of the
ia tha study of hialoty,
to be oaiod ito UPo^yo^ •*
_ . Withoot tha fcrmar, n»i
have eay claar aad diatiact idea of what he reads.
Mawoeai, bf a knowledge of this science, we are able^ .
to veriiy many peat triawDliMi, which, if they ever i!uiduZ-
hapneood, muat have left iadeKbie traces on tlie face legjr.
of the earth. Many cnnou* e«emplw of this nature
may be seen in Addtaon's Maandrela, and Sliaw**
TsiveU. With respect to chroniilogy, it i* ab*olutely
impossible to Com clear aod dittioct notion* of the in-
terval* of tiaw^of the rim and fall of empire*, and of the
■ucceesive astahliahmant of states, without some such
general comproheation of the whole current of time, aa
may aaoUe us to trace out dietinctly the dependence
of eventa, and distribute them into such period* and
divistoaa, a* shall place the whole train of peat tran*-
actioo* in a ju*t and ordariy manner before u*. For a
further illustration of the use* of GxooaAPHV and
Chbonouwv a* applicable to hietory, we refer our
rta<lers to thoee two article* in thi* work.
Anatbarbiwdi of study, which ought to be pursued StaOgki.

60.

history:

HisMry.

Siatutics.

along with the study of history, is what is called Sta-
tistics ; or that branch which comprehends an account
of the sources of the wealth and power of different
states, such as their population, habits of industry,
agriculture, manufactures, trade, commerce, and finan-
ces. Unless we possess intbrmation on this head, it is
obvious that we shall be much perplexed, and fre-
quently led astray, in our endeavours to account for the
comparative influence and exertions of different nations.
Thus, for example, a person ignorant of the a<lvances
which Britain has made in agriculture, manufactures,
commen-e, and what may be called the economics of
the state, cannot possibly satisfactorily account for the
h^h rank which she holds in the scale of European
nations,— a rank to which, from the mere inspection of
the map of Europe, she does not seem by any means
to be entitled.
Thereience Another collateral branch of study ought to be that
of govern- of the governments of nations ; not a minute investiga-
mcBt. tion of the various parts of their government, but such

a knowledge of their general and leading principles as
would enable us to ascertain, how far, and in what re-
spects, the influence and advances of each state might
justly be attributable to their respective constitutions.
In this point of view also, Great Britain may be cited
as an instance peculiarly illustrative of the justice and
truth of our observations. A person who had made
himself acquainted with the progress of this country in
agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and who be-
held in them the sources of her wealth and power,
would still be desirous of learning the causes which
had enabled her to make this progress so far beyond
that of other nations ; and of these causes, on investi-
gation, he would find her free constitution to be the
most prominent and operative. The observations which
we have now offered respecting the connection between
the history and the statistics and government of a coun-
try, will be most fully and satisfactorily confirmed and
illustrated by reading the articles Bbitain, History of;
England, History and Statistics of; and Scotland,
History and Statistics of, in this work. It is only within
these few years that the study of statistics has been
much attended to ; and we think we may, without the
charge of vanity, or partiality, refer to this Encyclo-
paedia, as connecting the history and statistics of the
various civilized countries of the world, more intimate-
ly and fully together than they had been previously
done in any work of the same nature.
The laws. Whatever illustrates the manners, customs, feelings,
&C. of each circumstances, and condition of the inhabitants of a
Mate. country in the various periods of its history, ought also

to be studied by him who wishes to derive from his-
tory its highest gratification and its full advantage.
The popular ballads of a nation, in this respect, ought
to be perused ; collections of the laws, ordinances, and
internal regulations enacted in a state, during any par-
ticular period of its history, are well calculated tor the
same object ; they give information respecting the con-
dition of the great mass of the community, whether
they were free or slaves ; and also respecting the pre-
valent crimes and vices of the age, and what measure
of punishment was necessary to expiate or repress
them.

All these are collateral branches of study, which are
connected w-ith the proper and advantageous perusal
of history in general ; but those who wish to enter
more minutely into the history of any country, and to
gain access to as many sources of evidence respecting
it as possible, may derive great advantage and assist-

ance from the records of the courts of law. These HWon-.
furnish a vast variety of historical facts, most minutely ''"•"'"V^^
investigated. To refer again to the particular instance
of our own country: It may with truth be affirmed,
that no one can form an adequate and correct idea of
the gradual amendment effected in our institutions,
and of the value of those constitutional principles and
eftbrts, from which those amendments have been de-
rived, who has not read with attention the state trials. State trials.
Treaties with foreign powers should also be perused ;
and the despatches of ambassadors, especially the con-
fidential communications made by diplomatic agents.
In the official letters of Barillon, published by Sir John
Dalrymple and Mr Fox, the impolicy of Charles II.
and of his unfortunate successor, is clearly traced ;
and in the papers of Sir Robert Walpole, as published
by Mr Cox, a striking picture is exhibited of the diffi-
culties incident to the administration of a free govern- official <li«.
ment. How much history may be illustrated by the patches,
publication of such oflScial papers, or rather how inex-
plicable the facts it records may often be, if not illus-
trated by such papers, is proved in a most striking and
interesting manner in the following instance. In the
years 1775 and 1776, General Washington lay en-
camped before the town of Boston, at the head of a
force far superior to that of the British, for the period
of nine months, witliout striking a blow. The Gene-
ral's official correspondence with Congress, published
in the year 1795, accounts for this dilatoriness, which,
till this publication, was inexplicable. From it, it ap-
jiears, that, during a great part of this time, he was so
scantily provided with powder, that, had the British
been aware of his situation, and marched to attack liim,
he would have been under the necessity of abandoning
his position.

Biography also may be brought to the elucidation and Biography,
assistance of history. In the lives of sovereigns, eminent
statesmen, generals, and lawyers, peculiarities of cha-
racter, prejudices, motives, and reasons for conduct,
which history cannot detect, and other circumstances,
are often brought to light, which serve to elucidate
what is obscure, to connect what is disjointed and
abrupt, and to account for what before seemed without
an adequate and appropriate cause.

The history of many nations may also be elucidated iMonu-
by visible monuments, such as pillars, edifices, or mere mcnts, &&
heaps of stone ; and by the names given to counties,
towns, &c. Of the same nature with public monu-
ments are national customs, in commemoration of re-
markable historical events ; such as the Athenians
sending annually a ship to Delos ; the paschal supper
among the Jews ; the Lord's Supper among the Chris-
tians ; our making bonefires on tne 5th of November,
and carrying oak boughs on the 29th of May.

Coins and medals are also of great use, in the illus- Medals«
tration of history. On ancient medals, a number of
events have been recorded, so that they serve to confirm
such passages as are true in old autliors, to ascertain
what was before doubtful, and to record such as were
omitted. By means of them, Vaillant has been enabled
to ascertain, in a very great degree, the chronology of
three important kingdoms of the ancient world, viz.
Egypt, Syria, and Parthia. Of Balbec and Palmyra,
whose ruins are so famous, history scarcely makes
any mention, and we have little knowledge of them,
but what is supplied by medals and inscriptions. In
modern times, coats-of-arms have been made use of for
the piurpose of distinguishing families. They must,
therefore, be of great use in tracing pedigrees, and con-

HISTORY.

61

ttbtaty.

wqacBtly in ascertaiaing ptfMOt aad events in his.
torr. Sm M utAU.

III. OMorUwaMit impoftant dirartMM •
utw (be atadr </ httfory, ia to bagin with
«lM)V«Mat«gnmI«i«wartliew)iol»Mbicct. Tlw
ia Nha tHrWH"* an entire oatline, befgra amy part of
the pictHV ia Inished ; mod learoing the mnd diri>
MWflf theeuth, ba^ote the gwignphy of putkular
w ia itadied. The prindpel advantage at this
ia, that it givaa a dear idea af the ceeanaiative
nee, as wdl M <# the ceanactiaa vlMcfa the
Utorjr of an j particukr eaantiT baan to the UAorj
ofthavratld. The aane edviee H appUosble to a Mr-
aoM vhaanpoaea to atadyanjrpaitiralar period or the hoaarlsi.
hiMofvara^lartie>kr<a»i>y. Ha oapfat. ailha daa |m|
liit pliiJ. lu iiIli lii— ilf II naaJBlril nTh ihr f" Md bici
•aty af dM eaiBtty in gaBodi. and thai Madk dw hia* ihniilatii
tarr oTthe perticuUrparied. ^The hiNarr of the dvfl
of OMrlaal. viB<

UaHiy ef Ei^aMl
dMM wars, and dw

of the

lofthe

with the whole eeane of

, to attaod to dw

ate read; for if the

ia dkw jpiwiaaaijr faapartd, by a gcaMsi a^

■aa widi Matoty, he vriD be abia to n*r my

\ to a whale aatow of Watofy, it b BMawaliiilr a

tor of Mule 1 01 1. ia what arte atol caaMnon

particakr hislories are read ; fbr they wiO «adl^. aad

dvoa in the Mid ia
laak in painl of

Tonal.

Greece. None of then tyitrBtKi direct the attention Untmy.
aC the reader to any other aabject than the political — » -"
part of history ; tfaiey seldom or ever enter into tlie
uaitohiili<ai of the caatet or Amseqnences of events ;
snd never digress, if digressian it may be properly
called, into t& coosideratian of the state of the arts
and sdenees, religion, lavs, maimais, govcnuDent, and
litcvatare, during the different epodv of whidi tbey
trcaC In fact, they will by no means sati^ the mind
that wishes to attain a proper introdnction to history,
as it ie bow generally written. For this purpoae, the
EUmtmtt ojGtneral Huiory, Ancient and Modem,
by the late Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Wood- I.4»dWssd-
" I ha read : In pamt cf arrangcniaat, h"""****

of parts, perspicaity

of style, a philoeephicd spint, and the

of the state of the srtsand seiancea, lite-

te. thia work may be jaady eoMWwdad ia

Th« Pkilotofky tf aiMory, by

walk aaid to be written liy the Losaa.

the name of RtUher-

prrparatory to eutciuig

huaiilii, oa^tob
daa pwaattiaB and

anthor, bat
Jmd, dMoMalsa
apan a rrgalar

of history. Of the latwar epi*
of mieDt hteory. that of BoIUb ie Uia toast ia-

and oonsplete : it is i
Idalil I "ftwB the beat GtaA and Latin historians: its
a^k ta faeot, aad even claynt : its great laalt is cie-
dafity, whiah uiiinm thaaathor 6ob iMiiiiiadiiiiieg
iahniaeitalofoaaalsbatwaaiAe aarvaBeoa aid the
tiaa. The atoient Uaaiy of dke Abbe Millot, which muIoi.
aaaatetoa the Im part of hia ffisTowv Gtmermk, is
■ore brief dan dMtafBeOia: bnt, at die aaae tiaae.
■BOVB faB daa dw oailaaMS we hare atentjeaad above.
The arraMBHal at this work is jadidooa ; the stvle
pRdtoaad eeanact. In his prdaea he infiiraw Ida
leailMa, that hia plea is to aeiae d>ose tofkatJ hjitari-
cai uaiiatJre, wnca preaent tte greatest ptaliua of ati-

Thera are aevaral epilotoee of
While the custoai of giriiy
■iiasilisa^ the aaa
LeCtaRra; botthaaw

lity. He givso a bold, and hi aaaaral a flathM and
itopattial akolch of aveato aad JiatBrtan ; bat the ob-

aaaai dowaeahr to the pried of dariaBatBa, ao.

■Btod by ito Borili, aad whack it h« by ■• tocaas
It ie aa liiipal. aad ia aaae paM

with which thia |
of the

W£

.bigatiy.aad
Jaady chMB^bla. Obe
ipoa the whale, ia that
Hilhcrg, ia LadD, ad tnaalatod,
and iiidWwM, iato B^U, by

with whidl ha raliaiw aad iatormixrs his
ve. are frequently awra dhtingaiAiiil for their
trvth, than their lajaiaallrj er psafcundnfto.
The reader having ben was prepaied foraregufav skadisfa
ry, bj toe pcrasal of such parta *'"***'
caatoM thi— elvii to that pe- ■'*'■' ^'**
k aqr be obearvad, **^'
M weU toaadaathiatora,) wa Aall now
aaMthodby wMeh dw priadpd aadMirs of
■ay he raad, w « to ceBaet tmm thaa a
aeaiqp liMkr owlaa of freii, wkidi wfll aaapiw Ae
hiatory of Aai% Africa, Graaee, aad BaiM^ tOl the di*.
' ' nflhi iMi|iiii if riiiinartiiiiiiili

is the awliart hirtarian eatwit, ncM to the Bs
af the hlMiiiltoi beake of dw Old Teatament
Hia hiatoty eatoftini ewary ddag he had aa opporto*
ai^ af lamfay raipattiqg dw LydiBna, loaiaaa, Ly.
~ ' Otaiki, and Macedonian*,

71S to the year 479 before dw birth of
Ckrirt. FMwpa aa aalher of Ualary. awiant or mo.
dem. wight be appealed ta^ aa aura fully ilhatfatina
the truth of the ranerfc nwda at the higaadHf af thu
aitkk, that, even m respect toamaarnient, hiitoiy ye.
acato riaim* to attention iwt inferior to works of nctiaa.
The gnat merits of this aathor are his diligence, eocn-
racy, fidelity, and iamaitiality. The accuracy of the
geofiaphical kaowieoge whidi he diaplavs, u conti-

AtoB the macovcries of

too littk notice is taken af dw Mnaiy ti

naaOy lacrithw riwfcaaiiuii frem the

dw BwderoaL Hia style ia aiiqde aad elegant HU

fialto and diCMts are hia diawMva laci

method, aad his

62

HISTORY.

Mitiory. inttnnixturc of fable. A more particular account of
^"■^""^ several events in the period of Herodotus' History may
be extracted from the following authors : Justin, books
i. ii. iii. and vii. ; the 7th book of Xenophon's Cyropee-
dia ; the lives of Aristides, Themistocles, Cimon, MiU
tiades, and Pausanius, by Plutarch and Cornelius Ne-
pos ; and those of Anaximander, Zeno, Euripides, He-
raclitus, and Democritus, by Diogenes Laertius, will
illustrate not only the history of Herodotus, but also
the state of manners and philosophy at that period.

_. ... Thucydides must be read after Herotlotus. In his in-
""^ troduction he connects his history with that of Herotlo-
tus, by giving a summary view of the history of Greece,
from the departure of Xerxes to the commencement of
the Peloponnesian war. He proposed to write the en-
tire history of that war, but his work reaches only to
the 21st year of it. The method he pursues is direct-
ly the reverse of that followed by Herodotus ; for his
exact and scrupulous observance of chronological or-
der, obliges him to interrupt his narrative, in a manner
that is very painful and disagreeable to his reader. His
style is uncommonly compact and dense ; so that his
meaning is frequently not brought out with sufficient
fulness and perspicuity. His reflections are acute and
profound, but more interesting to the politician than
the philosopher. After the first book of this author,
the nth and 12th of Diodorus Siculus ought to be
read ; and, after the whole of his work, the 4th and .6th
books of JFustin, and the lives of Alcibiades, Chabrias,
Thrasybulus, and Lysias, by Plutarch.
The 1 st and 2d books of Xenophon's History of Greece,

XenophoD. complete the account of the Peloponnesian war, with the
contemporary affairs of the Medes and Persians. After
this the expedition of Cyrus, by the same author, should
be read ; and, lastly, the remainder of his History of
Greece, which contains an account of the affairs of the
Greeks and Persians till the battle of Mantinea, in the
year 363 before Christ. All the historical books of Xe-
nophon comprise a period of about 48 years. The style
of Xenophon is remarkable for its elegance ; his impar-
tiality is undoubted ; and his manner and plan form a
happy medium between the loose and slightly cgnnect-
ed excursions of Herodotus, and the extreme rigour of
Thucydides. His account of the retreat of the Ten
Thousand, in which he bore a principal part, is perhaps
as interesting a portion of history as ancient or modern
times can present, and is told in the most interesting
manner. To complete the history of all that period of
which Xenophon treats, the lives of Lysander, Agesi-
laus, Artaxerxes, Conon, and Datames, by Plutarch
or Cornelius Nepos, and the 13th, 14th, and 15th books
of Diodorus Siculus, ought to be read. The continua-
tion of the work of Diodorus Siculus brings the histo-
ry of Greece and Persia down to the commencement of
the reign of Alexander the Great, in the year 336' be-
fore Christ. The history of Alexander has been written
by Arrian, Plutarch and Quintus Curtius. After these
authors, may he read the 18th, 19th, and 20th books of
Diodorus Siculus, together with the 13th, 14th, and
15th books of Justin; — these contain the history of
Greece from the 323 before Christ to the year 801 .
At this period, the course of historical narrative may
be traced from the l6'th to the 30th books of Justin,
and all that follow till the two last, which complete the
history of Greece till it mingles with that of Rome.

Diodonu The object of Diodorus Siculus was, by reading aijd

Siculufc travelling, to collect materials for an universal history,
from the earliest account of things to the time of Au-
gustus when he flourished. But only a small portion

of it has come down to us. Of 40 books, of which the History,
entire work consisted, the first five, which bring the """"V"*
history of the world to the Trojan war, are entire ; the
next five are wanting; but from the 11th to the 20th
inclusive the work is complete. The work of Justin is
an abridgment of an universal history, written by Tropes
Pompeius, who lived in the age of Augustus. It is
written in a style of considerable perspicuity and force,
and a due proportion and connection is observed among
its several parts. Plutarch's lives of Pyrrhus, Aratus,
Agis, Cleoraenes, and Philopoemon, should be read to
complete this portion of history.

A a these authors contain not only the history of
Greece, but that of all the nations of the world that
were known to the historians ; so the following course
of Roman history must also be regarded as compre-
hending all that is now to be learned of the subsequent
ancient history of all other nations.

The early part of the Roman history is treated in Dinnjsius
the most full and satisfactory manner by Dionysius of "'^ Halicar-
Halicarnassus. His entire work consisted of 20 books, °'''*"*'
and brought down the history to the commencement of
tlie first Punic war j but of these, only the II first are
now extant, and they terminate in the year 341 before
Christ, after the dissolution of the decemvirate, and the
resumption of the chief authority by the consuls. This
author pays much more particular attention to manners,
customs, and laws, than the ancient historians usually
did ; and, on this account, is peculiarly interesting and
instructive. He is, however, very credulous ; and his
style, though pure, is harsh. To complete the history
of the period of which Dionysius treats, the 1st, 2d,
and 3d books of Livy, and the lives of Romulus, Numa
Pompilius, Valerius Poplicola, Coriolanus, and Camil-
lus, by Plutarch, should be read.

After Dionysius, by reading from the 4th to the 10th Livy.
books inclusive of Livy, the history of Rome will be
brought down to the year 292 before Christ. The en-
tire work of Livy consisted of 142 books; but it has
come down to us in a very mutilated and imperfect
state, only 35 being left. This author is entitled to the
highest praise for fidelity, impartiality, and the rich
and eloquent grandeur of his style. A chasm occurs
between the 10th and 20th books of Livy, which may
be, however, in some measure, filled up, by the perusal
of the 1st and 2d books of Polybius; the 17th, 18th, Polybius.
22d, and 23d books of Justin ; and Appian's Punic and
Illyrian wars. From Polybius we may learn many
curious and important particulars respecting the art of
war among the ancients. His topographical descrip-
tions of the places which have been the site of the re-
markable events he records are uncommonly accurate.
His style is harsh and involved ; his reflections bear
evidence of a strong and reflecting mind. After A p-
pian should be read the remainder of Livy from the
2 1 st book to the end, which brings the history of Rome
to the year l6fj before Christ, I'he lives of Hannibal,
Scipio Africanus, Quintus Flaminius, Paulus jEmilius,
Cato major, the Gracchi, Marius, Sylla, Cato minor,
Sertorius, LucuUus, Ponipey, and Brutus, by Plutarch,
will not only serve to complete the history of Livy, but
will also afford some striking particulars respecting the
manners and state of society of Rome during the most
interesting period of its history.

The war of Jugurtha, and the conspiracy of Cata SaHusi,
line, which happened respectively 100, and 62 years
before Christ, have been narrated by Sal lust. The
great merit of this writer is his impartiality at a time
when prejudice and jjarty spirit must have been very
5

HISTORY.

63

Tacinu.

RuMTT' common »nd very powerful in Rome. His style is re-
>^ y —" markablc for it* conciseness ; »nd this quality is parti-

culwrlv con.«piciiou« in the chmmcters which he draws.
,_^ Mo-t of tnc transactions in which .lulius Cssar was

mgaged, are beat illustrated by his celebrated Comreien-
tan«s, and the supplement to it compileil by Mirtius
and others. In the Commentaries we may jfain some
Tery authentic and interesting information respecting
the early state, manners, lawn, an<l customs of those
nations which now hold the roost distinguished place
in modem Europe. The merit of this work of Cesar's
is very high in reapect both to matter and style ; the
advantage which he derived, in respect to accuracy
dt infonmation, from narrating his own exploits, is
not, in a single instance, counterbalanced by vanity,
partiality, or the concealment of his faults : his style
IS remarkable for its simplicity and ease. The ae-
■ecrct hatUKj of this important period will be most
dearly imdentood from a |>erusal of Cicero's Epistles,
nliirh may also be oonsalted fur information respect-
ing the Mate of society, manners, customs, &c. The
fragment* ot'the history of Dio Caanns contain a detail
of the evenu which took place between t^^ r^--->»l
when I.ucullus (iouridicd and the «kath of :
ror Claodian. In cuuibiuatioa with this autmir nuy
be read the degant compendium of N'elleius Patcm.
Ins, fraa the foundatioQ of Roae to the reign of Tibc>-
rius. at which period he lived.

The LiffW o/the Twelve Ccsxr*. wntten bj Soetoni-
n>, win p«»|we the way tor the study of the works of
Tacstna ; mad, twetbar with the BpiJun of Fliny. will
aMatA m fntty Am taiighr iaiB UW ma»» tt aociety,
and naoMn of the E—in mafSn at dut aeriad.

Tacitaa wrote aiuiola of the Mblle aCurs dram the
death of Anguitaa nearly to the end of the reign of
Nero : tmt only a MmH portion of then have come
down to OS, via. the Ibor first books ; a small part of
the 3th: all the 6lh fron the llthtothe 15th; and part
of the Itith. There is also a biatory, by the aaaae ao-
thor, which extends from the begfinning of the tvign of
Galba to the end of that of Doraitian. Ilia wont oo
the manners of the Germana ia partiruUrly iiiUiMtliin
and iaatraetive, m» a preparataty atndy to the modem
hiMoty of the northern and abiidio statoa of Europe.
Hb life of Agricob ia pefhapa the flnoM
biegrapfaical writinf OKtant. Tadtaa jMlly
thanMae of a yhHyiiiiiliiril hJrtarian.fejni
hsBMn natort, apacUly into the aaairai and amkinca
of tha wantpaMJfii, ia datp and pcnrtntinf : his style
M moDQunonly denaa.

On the ttnM* aftcrvility that iBWliiit the period
in which Tadtaa lived, a dim Kffat b ahed by the
worlu of Annliaa Victor. Henxlian, the aix eompilen
who ai« eooHMBiljr known by tho name of Seripinm
lUmmm, EntnpiM, Zeaiiuna, Zonaraa, Jovnande*. .Am.
mknm MareaJOBua, Pncnpina, AptUaa Nicetas. .Si.
ceplMmM Ongont, and Joanaaa CamacMtawa, Pro.
cafitm, JK. ara dj^ingaialiod by the appellation of the
Bywtine tuatorianai Their works relate to the hie.
tOTy of the frrrek or Eastern Einpiro to the period
of ita destruction by the Turfca. Of all theae aotfaora,

Hsndisa. *<>* ^7 two that pg miidi merit arc Herodian

and Annianna MaMrfUana. The fanner wrote the
hiatory of his own timet from the death of Antonine to
the reign of Batbinus and Pupienus, A. D. S3«. I lis
nMBWcr of narratiag events la anooanonly magtmifig
■ad ha|i|>y. Every accne. with ka cmhtb ndaiecu,
la the deam« and btm posnt of view.
M atylc. Am.

into

istyl

mianus Marcellinus wrote 31 books from the begm- Hutacjr
ning of the reign of Nerva to the death of Valens, in ^"^""^
whose court he lived ; but of those, the first thirteen,
a superficial epitome uf 237 yenn are now lost. In
those which are extant, he begins with Callus Caes.-ir,
about the year of Christ S5S, and largely describes the ac-
tions of Constantius, Cae«ar, Julian, Jovian, Valcntinian,
and Valens — a period of 25 years, bringing down the
history of Rome to the year of Christ 378. He was the AmmUna<
last subject of Rome who comnoaed a profane historj* M«rceUi-
in the I.atin langu.ige. He well deserves the character °"**
and the praise which Gibbon gives him : " It is not
without the most sincere r^n^ (**y^ ^^'^^ author) that
I must now take leave of an accurate and faithful guide,
who has composed the histor}- of his own times with-
out indulging the prejmlices and the passions which
uaually affect the mind of a contemporary." (Gibbon'^
Rfman Empire, Vol. IV. chap, xxvi p. 426, 8vo. edi-
tioo.)

A moat important series of events, connecting ancient GibVw's
and modern history, is supplied by Gibbon's Hitlory of^^^ "•■
Ihe Decline and FaU oflkt Roman Empire. This work ^t^ "j
commences with a view of the polic^r which swayed modern bis.
the Raman cabinet in the time of .\ugustus. Rapidly corf.
paaaing on to the age of the Antonines, A. D. 180, it
eshibits the extent and military force, the union and
internal proepcrity. and the constitution of the empire
at that perim. It then liegins to assume the form of
a hiatory in detail, which is lirou;;ht down to the total
extinetian of the Romnn Empire in the west ; is after-
warda continued to the taking of Constantinople by
the Turks, A. I). U53 ; and concludes at the esta>
bliahmant of the Papal power in the city of Rome, and
tha aAMMt temtory. The minute and extetuive learn-
ing dnnlayad in thia impartant work not only snpports
tho aatneiitititt of tho acu whidi it records, but alao
enabiea the antnor to diacaaa many correlative or inci-
dental safajectt, which doddate either the manners,
laws, and state of aociety at the different pe-
of which he treats, or those institutions that even
at nraaaut diaracterixc and distinguish the principal
natiana of Enrope. His stjrie ia by no means chaste ;
the unremitting pomp of hu periods fatigues his read-
ers : and he rtt serves unqualified and severe censure -
Car the diaogenaoua manner in which he luis insinua-
ted Ma atriaMdvoniona on the Christian religion. Rut,
after all theaa dedoctiona fhan the merit and value of
this work, it b highly narftal ; and indeed the only
work tbr the reader wlio wiahea to obtain a clear, full,
and interestlnir view of history, and the state of sodety
betwr< Klof the decktiaion of the Roman cm*

pire aii.x '. -ucy of the prindpal European statea.

Thoae tuituiBaa of modem history, which are con- RpiuiB« n{
ncctad witn ancient history, have already been men- modem bi»-
tioned. We shall now notice tocfa epitomes aa are '"y*
confined to modem hiatory. A good general epitome
was a work lone wantiqg to the republic of letter*.
We have omittedto notice the Andent Universal His-
tory in the former part of this article, because it is
much too voluminous to serve as an introduction to a
general knowledge of ancient history. The aame re-
mark applies to-tM Madera Univeraal History. Both of
them are much mote useful aa books of renrence, or
for consultation, after a tolerably aocHrate and rxten*
sive knowledge of history haa been acquired, than aa
intMdudory work* ; baiidas, tha various portions of
both are eBOcalad with vary uneqtial denvea of merit.
Vohairiri JBiaai mtr Im Mamn et FErpnt de* Nationi, vj,^re.
ia ntlMr ■ coamnUiy on facta, an acquaintance with

64

HISTORY.

Hittory. which is presupposed, than a detail of the facts them-
^'^'V^^ selves. The Histoire Moderne of the Abbe Millot is
a judicious abridgment. It deserves the character of
accuracy and impartiality ; but, besides being liable to
the objections that have been offered to the ancient
history of the same author, it is too much compressed
for the extent and importance of the topics which it
RiuwI. embraces. Kusscl's History of Modern Europe is a
work of a much higher character, and much more va-
luable and useful to the student in every respect. Its
merits appear to us not sufficiently known and prized.
Probably by those who have never read it, it is suppo-
sed that no great talents could be required or exercised
in drawing up a mere abridgment of history. But
the contrary is the fact: to judge from this work of
Kussel's, he must have been a man of considerable pe-
netration, sound judgment, a philosophical spirit, and
correct taste. His work is divided into two parts;
the first embracing the period from the rise of modem
kingdoms to the peace of VVestphalia in 1 648, and the
second comprehending the events of history from the
peace of Westphalia to the peace of Paris in 1763. A
third part, bringing the history down from the peace
of Paris to the treaty of Amiens in 1802, has been add-
ed by Dr Coote, who, though he has strictly adhered
to the plan, has by no means attained to the merits of
the original work. The subdivision of the plan is ef-
fected with considerable skill and ingenuity in a series
of letters, in which the principal transactions of the
leading European states are concatenated with as rigid
adherence to chronological order, as was consistent
with the mixed and fluctuating interests of those states.
By passing over events which derived their import-
ance and interest merely from the period in which they
occurred, or the personages who were concerned in
them, he has been enabled to give more room for those
of a more permanent nature. As a repository of facts,
therefore, judiciously selected, methodically arranged,
and authenticated with sufficient learning and diligence,
this modern history of Europe may justly be regarded
as a work of very great utility ; but it deserves higher
praise. The causes and consequences of the most im-
portant events are traced with great ingenuity and pe-
netration, at the same time that fanciiful speculations
regarding them are carefully avoided. The observa-
tions on the characters of the principal personages are
distinguished by tlie vivid and faithful pictures which
they exhibit. The progress of society from the rise of
modem kingdoms down to the peace of Paris in 1763,
exhibiting the manners of the people in their rudest
state, and in their highest polish, is given at stated pe-
riods with much ability and research. The advances
made in taste and science, and the usurpations of the
ecclesiastical at the expence of the civil power, are
clearly developed ; and, being connected with the pro-
gress of war, politics, and legislation, exhibit, in a clear
and conspicuous manner, the intellectual and moral
improvement of European society. The style of this
work is pure, elegant, and concise ; and the reflections
that are interspersed, always illustrate and confirm
the sacred principles of public and private justice.
GtDcnl This work will serve to exhibit the great and lead-

views ef the ing outlines of the events of modern history; and
EuTOBe. '^•°™ ^»''''°"'s Decline and Fall may be traced the ori-
P gin of those barbarous tribes, whose chiefs, at different
periods, making themselves masters of the various sub-
divisions of the Roman empire, laid the foundations of
the modern kingdoms of Europe. The student having
thus gained a general knowledge of modern history, as

well as a more particular insight into the origin of the History.
European states, ought, in the next place, to peruse """Y"^
those works which exhibit a general view of the histo-
ry of modern Europe at various periods.

Much valuable mformation relative to one of the Gaiikrd.
most important of the early periods of modern history is
to be derived from the Histoire de Charkviagne, pub-
lished by M. Gaillard in the year 1782, in four vols. History of
ISrao. The general state of Europe in the 11th centu- ^'jf'?V^
ry is described by Mr Berrington in the second edition ""'^

ofthe Lives of Abelard and Eloise. In the Abbe Sade's History of
Memoires Sur la Vie du Francois Petrarque, the author, Pe"*"^'**
by regularly indulging in details of circumstances with
which Petrarch has little or no connection, has contri.
ved to interweave into these memoirs a minute and ela-
borate account of the events which took place in Italy,
France, and other parts of Europe, during the greater
part ofthe Mth century. The history of this period may
still be further illustrated by the Chronicles of Frois- Froissatt.
sart, which, besides a minute detail of the transactions
which occurred from 1326 to 1400, give a most inte-
resting and amusing insight into the manners, customs,
habits, and feelings of that period. A succinct narra- shepherd's
tive of general liistory is also to be found in Shepherd's Life of
Life of Poggio, which, relating to the origin of the fa- Poggio,
mous ecclesiastical feud, the schism of the West, al-
most touches the period of Petrarch, and traces the
principal occurrences which took place in Italy and
Europe in general, beyond the middle of the 15th cen-
tury. The Life of Lorenzo de Medici, by Mr Roscoe, Roscoc's
may be next perused : as Lorenzo's political connec- ^''^ °
tions were very extensive, his history embraces the ''"°^'*»
principal occurrences which happened in the more ci-
vilised portions of Europe, during his life from 1448 to
1492. The succeeding period of general history is il-
lustrated by the same author in his Life of Leo X. In «n(l of
this work, Mr Roscoe enters fully into the state of Ita- Leo X.
ly and Europe, which had so much influence on the
fortune of that people, and which was also in no small
degree modified by his actions. In both these works,
Mr Roscoe has given a copious history of the progress
of literature and the fine arts.

The History of Charles V, next becomes the most Robertson's
prominent in the general history of Europe ; and, with Charles V.
this view of it, it has been most ably written by Dr Ro-
bertson. The first volume of his work contains a view
ofthe progress of society in Europe, from the subversion
ofthe Roman Empire to the beginning ofthe Ifith cen-
tury, embracing the several heads of government, laws,
manners, military establishments, and the political con-
stitution of the principal states of Europe. The Histo-
ry itself comprehends the eventful period between the
years 1500 and 1559, during which events took place
which materially affected the state of society, and tlie ad-
vancement of literature, knowledge, and liberty in Eu-
rope. The Histories of Philip II. and III., by Drs Philip II.
Watson and Thompson, may also be read with refer- ao<l ''!■
ence to a general acquaintance with the history of Eu-
rope during the period of their reigns, and to a know-
ledge of several events, which tended materially to
change the relative situation and importance of tha
various states of Europe. Indeed, the political allian-
ces and wars of these monarchs involve the interests of
so many kingdoms, that their history displays the gene-
ral topics of the history of Europe till the year 1621,
the period ofthe death of Philip III.

Soon afterwards the French monarchy began to as-
sume such a rank, and to connect itself with so many
states, that its history ought to be perused, as throw-
4

HISTORY.

65

HiMarf.

r/^uuXIV.

HiMMioer

Briuio.

tag more ligkt nn th« general historv of Europe than
that of mny other kingdom at this time. Harte't Life
of Gustaviu Adol|>hu«, and Scheller'i History of the
Thirty Yeara' War, also illustrate, in tome degree, the
history and state of the north of Europe about the
aame pericxl ; and bring down the narrative of events
nearly to the a^e of Louii XI V. Voltaire's life of this
monwch will conduct the reader to the period when, in
oonaequenoe of the allknoca formed by the English na-
tion with varioos- twiUiMHital power*, the history of the
world is strictly eonnectad with that of our native land.
IV. Under the 4th division of this article, we pro-
posed to point out the order in which the history of
particttlar cowitriM may be read, m that tbej may b*
illnatratiTe eiaam another. " Natare," as Mr Gibbon
joidjr obaoTcat " kaa hnplantcd in otir brcasis a livdy
■—f"*— to extend tiie natnnr apan at our cxiatcnoe,
by the kDowledge of the evenu that have lia|nwiiiw<
on tiw soil whidt we inhabit, of the dtaradcn and ao*
tkma of those men ttom whoa oar dcaoent as indivi-
duals or a* a people is probably derived. The same
laudable emulaition will prompt us to review and to en«
rich our common treasure of national glory ; and those
who K9 beat entitled to the eMcem of poeterity, are
tke aoat indined to celebrate the meiita of thor an-
ccetor*. The history of Britain, thenCN*. naturally
w31 «id ought to clami our hiahwt Latarsst. Under tlic
ardde Britaih. in this EmcycUtpmJim, will be Iband a
Idatary of the Island fnaniu fiiat pcfmlatian bf the
Cebi^ ontil the arrival of the Snon* in tiie year UQ.
A» mu oonatitatjaa, oar natinnal dMmelar, tae taoe of
our aaannen and ftaiinf^ and oar la^fwifa^ mn, in*
great neaaofe, ocnTca Iran oar nortMiB oBBHlen, the
attadaa Gkbmaiiv and ScaNDiNAVu oockt to be read
in coonection with the early part of the niatoty of Bri-
tain. From the arrival of the Saxons till the union of
the crown* of ERCLAKDandScoTLAiiDin the year 1603,
the bialorica of these two coontriea are treated distinct-
ly under the nspeeti^a aitides ; but the coanactian
between then during (he ffMter part of tiua period,
wnwdoaa^ tiwagh gonaiMhraf alweta«Htiua, that
their hklariM mn ii in mi ill nolMOy OlmnliTe of
each ethar. The hiatory ti Fbamcb, ake, givia vnder
thetartide, ongbttobe raad, ibr ^ narpoaa of illua.
trariow the himaiia both of Eqgland aad Saollnds
wWka tunira cnn«d»aliM of the kngnaa, the
MMMn. ad the ante ef soriatj in Fnooa. will afcd
aladdbliaB, atd give iililitianai faMarat to the Ei^ish
and Seoieh hiatary daring the aane nsiod. Under
the artide But AIM is given the hsetory or the island ftoB
tha ftiaa of the crowna of En^Mid and Seotknd to the
efthe year 1612: and the

raMmg nortioa of the foreign hi^aij of Brilaia
J • I « to the last peaee of Paris in 1 » 1 5, w iO be faaBd ■»•
der the aitida FaaMci. A nonfyi anoonl efthe
war between Great Britain and her colanea, tinn ia to
be Binnd under the farmer artide^ ia fl^w aMfar the
artida Amxuca, (yfairrsceii VmHtd SMm.) After the
prronl efthe hiatorin of Ei^dand, StollMdt and Bri.
tain, nod in thia order, and Una ahHidMad, d» lead-
er sheold penn the hfaten af Ibuamo, girm nadOT
that artide : ad n laata Amaaow mdi aa antaadv*
and valuable portaaa efthe Britiah enpire. the hiato.
IV of it, under thetartide, ooght to be lead iaoaaaee.
tfaa with the history efthe unitad kiagdtaa.

IfthertodentU deainasefaalningnMi* roily and
deenlpr into the hiatary of this eooaby than the articica
ia dua flscy/spnlia, newanrOy aaacuMl, wiU enable

VOU XL PAItT I.

him to do, Rapin will afford him a very elaborate, and History,
in general a very faithful, histor)' of England till the closf ^"'Y'"^
of the 17th century ; while, in Hume's History, he will Hume.
find infinitely more philosophy, but far less impartiality
and accuracy. The history of England, from the period
of the Revolution, cannot boast any writer of standard
excellence. In Hcnrj-'s History of England, and An- Henry,
drews' History of (Jrcat Britain, connected with the Anilitvt.
chronology of Europe, the literature, artsnitd manners,
religion and government of the several nerio<ls, which
these works respectively comprise, are elucidated.

The very early history of Scotland has been most
elaborately elucidated by Pinkerton ; the same author, PinlertoB.
and Lord Hales, have also treated, in a masterly and sa- Hiics,
tisflKtor}- manner, the history of this country during
a lesa remote period. Af^er the second work of Pink-
erton, should be reed Robertson's History of Scotland, Robcruon.
during the reigns of Queen Mary, and James VI. till
his accession to the crown of England ; and Icing's i j;^-.
Historr of Scotland from the union of the crowns to
the umon of the kingdoms. Iceland's History of Ire- LaUad.
land traces, in a masterly manner, the transactions
which took place in that country, from the invasion of
Henry II. to the treaty of Limerick in the reign of
William 111. Thoee portions of the history- of this ili-
ftted and ill-used country since that period, which are
narticalarly full of incidents, cannot yet be treated in an
mpartial manner. In the History of >\'ales, by ttie Wuring- '
Rev. W. \N'arrington, all the facts are collected which tuo.
can throw light upon the government, manners, and
final subjugation of a people, still strongly marked by a
pawiliar character, maanen, and rustomf!

Nest to the hisleiy ef the L'nite<l Kingdom, the his- |,{„g_ ^
tory of Fiawce dainu the attention and investigation of r^^eL
the student, both en accoant of its connection with the
hiatory of theae islands, and on account of the relative
importance of that state in Europe. L'nder the article
France will be found a sketch of its history, as full as the
limita and notore of this work will allow, accompanied
by a statiHicri account of that country, which, aa we
have afaoady leoMrked, oaght always to be read in
ean|uactioB with hiatory. lae early portion of the hia>
tory of Prnce adnitaof and require* elucidation, from
a knuwledce of the manaen, mws, &c. of the ancient
German tnbea, niariy a* much n the early history of
Britain ; the artida GxaMAiiY, thcrcffare, may be pro-
fhahljr coaMkcd for that puntoae. AAcr the affairs of
Fiaaoe cone for a time to be intinatelT interwoven
with the aCdra ef Baglmd, iu history becomes oon>
aactod with, aad ihirifen mar be cluddatrd by, the
hialmy of Aaatria nadar the &Bperor Charlea V. and
bjr the hialery ef Itoly. Daring the 1 7th and the early
part ef the IfldI eentvrira, the hiatary of France ro
qain* a idhieaca to the hietorica of the Netherlands
Mid of Spain. Fran the eemmencement of the war bc>
tweea Britaia and France in 1744 to the present time,
the hiatorin of the two countriea are mutually illustra*
tire of each other.

The hiatary of Spain, peihaps, lx>th on accou ;
rdatioii to tar historic* of Britain and France,
aoooont of the inportance of that kingdom in the scale
of Europe, at leart during a certain P^'iod, next daims
the investigation of the studeaC Beaides the article
SraiN, the artide Arabia may advantageously be con«
suited, in elucidation of the manners, custons, &c.
and the carlv history of the peninsula. AfW the ex-
pulsion of the Moors, the historic* of France, Spain,
and Italy, ftvn the md of the 1 5th to the b^inniog of

History of
IUI7.

■lin wtd
l'atuif*L

66

HISTORY.

H'utotj.

r.enaut
kingdoau.

KuMia.

Denmark,

Netlier-
huuk.

Switzet-
tuid.

luif.

History of
the king,
tionu of

the l6th centuries, are intimately connected. As the
discovery of the new world happened at that period,
the articles Amekxa, Mexico, and Peuu, ought to be
consulted for an account of the transactions of the Spa-
niards there. Soon afterwards the history of this coun-
try becomes connecteil with that of the Netherlands.
After the separation of the United Provinces from Spain,
its history may be chiefly elucidated by the histories of
Portugal, luly, France, and Britain. The history of Por-
tugal admits of little elucidation from the history of
any other country except Spain; the articles Africa
and Asia, however, may be consulted for a brief ac-
count of their discoveries and settlements in these quar-
ters of the globe.

As an introduction to the history of the German
kingdoms and states, the article Germany ought to be
perused : this will prepare the way for the history of
Austria, illustrated in its progress by the histories of
Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, Russia, Turkey,
Sweden, and the Netherlands : the history of Prussia,
illustrated by the history of Brandenburgh, Russia,
Austria and France; the history of liavaria, Saxony,
&c. The account of the KeCormation, given in the ar-
ticle Ecclesiastical History, ought to be consulted,
with reference not only to the history of (Jermany,
but also to those of Britain, France, and the Nether-
lands, during the ICth and part of the 17th centuries.
The history of Russia will receive elucidation irom the
histories of Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Poland, Turkey,
and Persia. The article Scandinavia ought to be con-
sulted for a general view of the manners, customs,
laws, &c. and early history of Denmark, Sweden, and '
Norway. These countries, besides mutually illustrating
the history of one another, will receive elucidation prin-
cipally from the history of Russia and Germany. Under
the article Netherlands, will be found the history
of that country, not only while it remained undivided,
but also of the United Provinces, and of the new king-
dom, which has reunited the whole seventeen provin-
ces. That portion of the history of this country, which
properly relates to the United Provinces, will receive
elucidation from the history of Spain, France, and
England, during nearly the whole of the period, from
the establishment of their independence till they were
merged in the kingdom of the Netherlands. The com-
parativtily pacific history of Switzerland admits of il-
lu-tration, in no important degree, except from the
history of Austria, during the very early period of the
establishment of its independence, till, like nearly all
the other states of continental Europe, its history be-
comes involved in the revolutionary history of France.

The general account of Italy ought to be consulted
previous to the histories of Naples, Sicily, Venice, Tus-
cany, the Popedom, &c. ; and these will be elucidated
by the histories of France, Spain, Austria, and Turkey.
The history of the Popedom indeed, both in its eccle-
siastical and civil character, is so intimately connected
•with the history of all the European kingdoms, (except
Russia and Poland,) till the Reformation, that it ought
to be studied carefully; for this purpose the article
Ecclesiastical History may be consulted. The his-
tory of Poland will be elucidated principally by that of
Turkey, Austria, and Russia.

Respecting the histories of the kingdoms of Asia,
Africa, and America, our notices must be very short. Of
course before the history of any particular country in
any of these divisions of the globe is studied, the de-
scription of that particular division, under its proper
head in this work, ought to be consulted. Turkey,

from its connection with the histories of Austria, Po-
land, and Russia, claims perhaps the first notice. The
history of Arabia, illustrated by the life of Mahomet,
is an interesting object of study, not onl)' on account of
the conquests and literature of the Arabs, but also from
the connection of their history with that of the Penin-
sula. Though the history of China has little or no
connection with the history of any European state, yet
the peculi."rities of its inhabitants must rendir its his-
tory interesting : Under that article will be found not
only an accurate and well-proportioned abridgment of
the history, but also a very faithful and detailed de-
scription of the maimers, language, institutions, &c. of
that singular countr}'. Since the middle of the last
century, the history of India has become so intimately
connected with the histories of France and Britain,
and that country at present forms so large and valuable
a portion of the British empire, that its modern history
ought to excite considerable interest, even though its
ancient history, and the character of its inhabitants,
and their laws, institutions, &c. did not put forth-
strong claims to our attention. For an account of the
histories of the other kingdoms of Asia, we must barely
refer our readers to the articles of Persia, Biuman
Empire, J.\pan, Thibet, Tartarv, Malacca, Ceylon,
SiAM, &c. The history of the principal states of Africa
will be found under the articles Egypt, Abyssinia,
Cape of Good Hope, Algiers, Moiiocco, Tripoli,
Tunis, &c. The history of the united states of Ame-
rica, as already mentioned, should be sought for under
the articles America and Britain ; of the British co-
lonies there, under the articles Canada, Nova Scoiia,
&c. and also under Britain ; of the Spanish colonies,
under the articles Buenos Ayres, Chili, Mexico,
Peru, &c. and also under Spain ; of the Portuguese
settlements under tlie head of BuAZii., and also under
Portugal.

V. We shall now conclude this article with a brief
notice of the different species of history, besides that
which is emphatically so styled. History, strictly
speaking, relates to the narration of the wars and poli-
tical events of kingdoms ; but besides this species of
histor}', that which relates to the support which Chris-
tianity has received from the secular power ; together
with the benefits or disadvantages resulting from this
suppart ; and also to the internal administration of the
church, its constitution and discipline, its doctrine and
its worship ; or, in other words, the history of Chris-
tianity, of its corruptions and reformation, and of the
influence wiiich its principles, or the conduct of its
professors, have had on the political c<mdition and af-
fairs of mankind, may justly be regarded, as very inti-
mately connected with the species of history, which we
have been so fully considering. Ecclesiastical history,
tlierelbre, ought to be studied, not merely in its reli-
gious, but also in its political point of view. Whoever
reflects on the power of the Pope for several centuries,
—on the friendly relations or wars between the diffe-
rent states of Europe, which they brought about, — on
the wars arising from the Reformation, and on the great
and decided cliange in the political character and power
of the mass of the people which that event produced,
must be convinced that ecclesiastical history cannot
safely be neglected even by the mere statesman. This
article, therefore, ought to be carefully perused, both
by itself, and in connection with the history of the dif-
ferent states of Europe.

The histories of the different arts and sciences are
quite of a, distinct class from political and ecclesiastical

China.

India.

Africa.

America,

Other spe-
cies of his-
tory.

Ecclesiiisti-
cal hi&tory.

Its connec-
tion with
political his-
tory.

HOB

67

HOB

.*,i

hiflkocy ; though, to the student of both of these, m
wetl as to the m«n of science, they mnrt be interrtting
and useful. The re*ource« and the wealth of states
depend matnljr on their advances in the art*, and sci-
**"■*"•*"•' enoes ; and with respect to the connection of some of
^^*^ _ the latter with the state of religious knowledRe, the
yi,^,^^ history of astronomj is sufficiently explanntory. As
aHhtftH- one of the principal objtrts and acfvanta);es of history,
strictly ra cslle<l, is to ^n an insight into the pn>>
gTCM of man in political and individual happiness,
•only an acquaintance with the advances which he hat
msde in every species of knowledge, which secures his
liberty, or multiplies his meant of defence or enjoy-
ment, muot be interesting and important Besi<les,
whoever is desirous of satii^ctorily accounting for the
diflSnence between ancient aiiH modem nations, as
displayed in their respective hiatories, mad for the great
ana decidetl superiority <>f the latter, roost look beyond
mere politicml history, to the history of thaw arts and
■dcncn, which were comparatively unknown to the
andotla. Mid in which the modems have made anch
vendMrAil adrtatem,~-mivmnem that will be found, in a
crMt HMMOf*. and nearly in •V07 iBstancp,acrompan>e<i
by, if not rcdhr praduetisre of nnikr adrancea Hi national
renounm, and poHtieal power The copioas historic*
at the arts md aricncca, thereta*, given in this work,
under the raapMtiTe heads of eadi art or sciencr. ought
by ni BMans to be neglected by aocil aa wtab to icail
political Ualaty to advantage ; and if they srr uinnwl
ncmoMCtian wkh llw ataMical account of cart eaan-

I17, gtvaa aloOf with ka Matory, the eansea of the com-
a Miiiiaii of aations in political liberty and
win be very ciaarijr and sattafactorUy traced.

panB«

pcww

(" •)

HIVF. See B», «nl iii. n. 413, Ac.

IIORBFS. Tkoma*, cdebratsd aa a literary and
philu*<>iil\ical ci.arirter. bot diiatfy for the nccsiUari-
ties of M^ rnorsi ^t^A nnlitiesi tlotUMiea, «aa UW aon of

a |J»in iinte<lrT«^l rlerfrnian of "• '- — ^V ••.

sbire. tie WR« bom on the 5th o<
crisis when this coontrr "^ " irr<i i»v trir icnni-

dabteaniwrfa 'ent l>y I'r >paio. '(lis mother,

powerfhlly afcrteil by th«- nnKtrmatian then to gene-
ral over the kfaigdom, was detiveted bate* the Ml
time, in ronseqtienc* of which Hohbea waa
delicate in his chfldhMHl Bat be evfocvd a
a|^«itnde far iaamimr. aid altraatad awch notic* by bla
■tsehMol. Balbratkvaf* of l«v hetrana.
ef B«riiiadaa faila l^tia i—bifa, At

thia aM, ht went to Magfciii HaB. OifoH. where
ha (Hi^aWiad hnMaJTby Mi ■laMfiiiiH and ge.
BhHL Tb Bari of n^nmJUn, tiiiU^ to nroSt by
hia talanta, iinlBiiJ hnn as a waiianiwi and ins(

rho

mstrwc-
of the age of

Ma aMaat aoi
Hobbes, and that ftmily eanliagid to
long a* be Uv«d. At an awly ftriai Ha waa kaawn to
AeaMniad Lord Baean, with when be waa a mat
ftvutofh^ aad to when ha acted as an amaaaensL M
trniJalM aaaa af Ma fwnim faMe Utin. He tn.
veUadwAMaiHblepvpnhiPtaMaMd Italy, when

' "--Titlh»»aristj nf flatilan MMlnllwi wMaaii il

chanMtm, and Madiad the nsaiMM, iMlliiliwi.

ners, and Icambig of ihcaa two nadaoai

He now raaoltwi totlaeoto Ma lift to the cnkivalion
of nBte Htonturr. and Ma Int pabKeation waa an
Mahtf ilHiiin of Thncydidia. wMchapnaamlm
Ifltl. Btft Ma plan* were discuncottad by the death
afHapapQ and Mend. He soon alM Ifannad « an.
gagcmcnt to travel with the ton of afar GwatCliiIgn,

with whom he rcmainni for some time in France. In Hobb«^.
1631, the Countess Dowsper of Devonshire renewed - 1 — '
his connection with hor tamily, by putting the young
earl, then 13 years old, under his care. He went
with his tiupil to Paris, where he studietl mechanics
and the laws of animal motion. On these subjects
he had frequent conversations with Father Mersenne
and with Gsssendi, who was then engage<l in an at*
tempt to revive the physical doctrines of the Epicu-
rean achool. It was at the age of 40 that his attention
waa first turned to mathematical studies, in conse-
quence of having accidentally looked into a copy of
Euclid, where the enunciation of tlie 47th proposition
of the first book arrested his curiosity. " This," he e«-
dainied, " is imposaible !" He then rapidly went over
the demonatntion, and traced in a retrograde direction
the preceding theorems on which the steps of the proceas
were founded. The lover* of the raatliematical sciences
much regretted that he began these studies so Ute in
life ; aa he evince<l a happy talent for them, yet la-
lioored under the disadvantage of an obstinacy of opi-
nion which might have been corrected by the more va-
ried views unfolded during the pliant |>eriod uf youth.
The ardour of his mathematical studies waa in a
great mra^ure repressed, in conseqnence of the pro-
fi ,-«t which he took in political affairs, in

wl '-.d not intermeddle as a busy politician, in-
triguing with indiriduals for the establishment of one
party on the ruins of another, but conceived the design
of prodncing a f[«neral impression by an upen expoai-
tion of bis opinions, which, though new and peculiar,
he hoped to render nopalar, by the Ibrce of thoogbt
which he could display, and the strong arideoceslnr
which they were soppottad. Whan tiM politioal dif-
ference* of the wa were so strongly marked, it waa a
iair general eanaiiaion that both partica wore a* likely
to be wrong as any one was to De exdosttrely right,
and that a man of vigorous thinking powers, who de-
voted much iaborioo* meditation to his subject, might
form a more accnrate system tlian any maintained by
his eotemporarica. Nor was it unnstumi for a young
anthnr to pnaume t<xi much nn the readineas of mao»
kfaid to lay themaelvci open to conviction. The«e idaaa
he had eberiahcd Ibra cowridarahU time, and some r»>
prewnt Mai aa having cakiealod mathematic* chiefly
with a view to haMfato Maaaair to • doH and atoady
mode of tMnkmg.

Hia ffr«t polilMal cawy waa a amall tract, which waa,
not printed, bat cirrulaied in mamiseript in tlie year
I6t0, dnrin* the sitting of the partiament in April,
which was iBaanlvad the following May. when the par-
liamwit aad CIhvIc* I. differed so widely on the sub-
ject of the rayal mawgalive. Thia tract atroogty aa-
•erted the pretoMiona of royalty, and ooodanHiod thoae
of the paHiament and the people aa nqjoat encroaob*
mentt It occa«iane<l a ouneioataMa Mmalioa, and
would have involved llobhes in imminent danger, if
that narliament had not been dissolved This waa the
haibMHer af tha notod political wiirks which he sub-
af^MOOr pMUiad. Ms book A- Or •. and bis l^nUi.
iAjh. Mamwaring, bishop of S' was sent to

the Tower for preachmg tne doc-t I iobbca 1 and

the laltv aadr a timely retreat to Haria, to tHoaacMti
Ma atadiea in the enjoyment of personal aaoarfty.
Here he returned to the sodety of MacoMae and
Oaasendi, to which was added that of De* Caitea. Af-
tarwarda, however, Hobbca controverted the doctrinaa
of the latter on the sobiect of innate ideas, which terw
mlnatrd all tbdr tUmuy tntemmzse.

68

IT

H O B B E S.

liobbco. In 1642, he published, while at Paris, a few copies
""nr""^ of his book De Cive. He became acquainte<l with Sir
Charles Cavendish, brother to the Duke of Newcastle,
who admired his mathematical talents, and attached liim-
self warmly to him as a friend and patron. In 1647, his
fame in mathematics procured for him a reeommenda-
tioa to instruct the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles
II., in this brancli of science. His fidelity and care in
the execution of his trust secured to him the esteem
of that prince, whicli continued ever after, though on
some occasions prevented from being manifested by
the obnoxiousness of his principles. In this year, a
more complete edition of his work De Cive was pub-
lished in Holland under the care of Dr Sovbiere, to
which two recommendatory letters were prefixed, one
by Father Merseruie, and another by Gassendi.

In 1650, his book De Homine was published in Lon-
don, containing a developement of his doctrines of
sensation, particularly as illustrated by the mechanism
of vision, with a dissertation on human speech, intel-
lect, appetite, passion, action, and character : also ano-
ther work, entitled, De Corpore Politico, or " Elements
of Law." In this and the year 1651, he published in
London his Leviathan, a work in which his opinions
on moral and political subjects were more complete-
ly embodied. After the publication of this work, he
returned to England, though Cromwell was now at
the head of the government, and lived at the Earl of
Devonshire's country seat in Derbyshire. It is remark-
ed tliat he lived in communion with a congrega-
tion belonging to the church of England, and regularly
resorted to their place of worship. His assertion of the
royal prerogative was not now construed to his disad-
vantage, as he had prudently intimated that his doc-
trine was applicable to any individual possessed of su-
preme power.

In 1654, he published his letter on " Liberty and
Necessity," which occasioned a long controversy with
Dr Bramhall, afterwards lord primate of Ireland. He
advocated the doctrine of necessity. He sometimes
says he could not help being astonished that those
who argue that men can act without constraint, forget
that the determination of their actions depends on their
will, and that it is not to the actions as separated from
the will, but to the laws of the will itself that our in-
quiries must be directed. He must be allowed to have
added some precision to the nature of the arguments
embraced in this controversy. He now began a dis-
pute on his part not creditable, with Dr Wallis of Ox-
ford, which involved the greater part of mathema-
tical science. Not content with attacking the doc-
trines of his adversary, he exposes with grovelling
minuteness the inaccuracies of his language; and,
though afterwards repeatedly refuted to the satisfac-
tion oi all the mathematicians of the age, he perse-
vered with unaccountable obstinacy in asserting his
first opinions.

At the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, Hobbes re-
moved to London, where he now reckoned himself
safe. In the country, he was possessed of every ad-
vantage that books could suf ply, by the ample library
of his patron, which was always enriched with every
additional work that he chose to recommend ; but he
■wished to enjoy the advantages of the conversation of
the learned, which he found necessary to his habits of
enjoyment, and to the full activity of his talents. Soon
after he came to London, the king observed him from
his carriage, and renewed his acquainUnce with him :
He fondly cherished his couversation, and settled on

him an annual pension of £100. But the personal fa-
vour of Charles was not sufficient to screen Hobbes
from the censure of the parliament, which, in lC66,
was publicly pronounced against his book De Cive and
the Leviathan. This prince, though fond of absolute
power, was a tool of the high church party, to which
that controul on the part of the sovereign over ecclesi-
astical affairs which Hobbes recommended was ex-
tremely obnoxious. They professed the strictest attach-
ment to hereditary monarchy, but certainly exacted it
as a condition, that the king should maintain their hier-
archy and forms as the established religion of the state ;
and, if we may judge from subsequent events, would
have entertained but feeble objections to any prince
capable of being seated firmly on the throne, who would
shew himself most cheerful in assenting to this indis-
pensible condition. Hobbes maintained, that the na-
tural ferocity of man renders it necessary to vest the
absolute power in one person, to whom the church and
the consciences of the people ought to be subjected.
Thus, he made the radical truth of any religious system
a matter of little importance. To admit this, would be
to acknowledge the church to be wholly a plastic mu-
table engine of government, and to compromise the
dignity which she always asserts of having her princi-
ples founded in immutable truth. A bill was also
brought into Parliament to punish atheism and profane-
ness, which he considered as aimed at him ; for, though
neither atheism nor the denial of Christianity were
tenets maintained by him, he knew himself to be ac-
cused of them by the general voice, and therefore wts
somewhat uneasy. On this occasion, apprehending
that his house would be searclied, and his papers seized,
he burned some of them, and particularly one which
was the most obnoxious of all, a Latin poem on the en-
croachments of the Komish and reformed clergy on
the civil power. The king was now obliged to with-
draw from him all public expressions of his personal
regard. He continued, however, to live in London
unmolested j was held in high esteem among the learn-
ed ; and was honoured by the visits of ambassadors and
other illustrious foreigners, among whom was Cosmo
de Medicis, then prince, and afterwards Duke of Tus-
cany, who procured his picture for his cabinet, and a
collection of his writings for his magnificent library at
Florence, Hobbes had it in contemplation to publisii
an elegant edition of his Latin works ; but finding it
impracticable in London, he had an inferior one exe-
cuted at Amsterdam in 1 668. In 1 675, he published
his English translation of the Iliad and Odyssey.

About this time, he took a final leave of London to
pass the remainder of his days at the Earl of Devon-
shire's seat in Derbyshire, where he continued to prose-
cute his studies. In 1676, his dispute with Dr Laney,
Bishop of Ely, on liberty and necessity, made its ap-
pearance; and, in I678, his Decameron Physiologicum,
or ten dialogues on natural philosophy ; also, his Art
of Rhetoric, and his History of the Civil Wars, from
1640 to 1660, which he entitled Behemoth, of the pub-
lication of which, however, his friend Charles the II.
who saw it in manuscript, did not approve.

His mental powers continued vigorous till his last
illness, and his great delight consisted in exercising
them. In his 85th year, he wrote an account of his
own life in Latin verse, which evinced considerable
activity of mind, though the execution of his task af-
forded no bright display of literary taste. In the fol-
lowing quaint conceit, for example, he depicts the cir-
cumstances of his birth :

Hobbes.

U O B B E S.

69

■d chac Tom dint <

natcr,

emu to tbuly MUhiitfiw with gnat
•ad he died at tbe hcwe of hw DobU p*-
tran in 1^9^

TlMaccMBtifiTCBaf bU temper and private cha<
lacler an rarigui^ Meaidii^ to Um rhaaiMili thitMgh
which they art cwnaiwtiid That* whan doctrinM
he diqpotcd, and whoM wiiUng* and tkanttm* he re.
Tiled, drew aioeif with ihaa • iiMBbar of prntiamu to
mdeb ooMMBieMiw and ontiottabteu

ttinMtm Imb ae rodeb ooMMiiMMiw and wolrMtabHu
OrUde tnpar we cenainlji pctoivo aoaoe traeee in hie
writtqge; be* we likowiM .fad in tiMn oocaiiaHt
praoftofaapiritef coacQiataaaaBd caadoar* legeihee
with a aenee at the biae which cxtcnial circniiMtaDOce
Of* to hie wrida^ Id the fiBUowing trnni hp ceo*
#MlMhia pnfrce to hi* bookUlrCree: thit

traataie, you fad any thing of que^ionaL.. . :>. or

any thing i ipiieMil with too greet acriawny, nBtein>
ber that thi^ an epekeo not ftooi party seal, but
• ■aoB* wiebferthe peaee of Mcie^ ; ud by aaiaa

) ^primT, eo juMly awaked by the diabvcboiw aad
itMe ef hit ctaaCry. eatitfet biaa to • tbare ef far.
fiviqg tandteiMac Ho thteafaa enneiw that yoa wfli.

object t4 beater, wivdi
I wae waMtbthli lor the
To

At eooft. he wee a i
he boco with i

Micttj aad fanndi^' of hie ^

^Btifieo^ however, be aovcr feve a naMiy leply. If
hie eataioB wat eekad ea ea^ aoiat efphionphy or mt
ienoi^hofBve awaMi*fcflaiMliM,eciddifr
t tert oTaaewer. which, la a h ii mmi —. ■%>>
I beta ariMritea by the lofefMal ftr a aerk orm.
■ea of chenel*, bat bi taaGlgr araaeeded Aoai hie
f awara «i tbo ■ibialiialy «i eiHMMMMat to bo
m it. ■ rati, aad tba tfak wbi A lb«i aiwiqri it
«o enor. AI who raWiltJ bit loeiety
|iiuaynJbi«adeifaMyri |i fi i llrWood.in
hit HiKeiy of He Anli^im mf Otf»^ iaeerted thi«
ckatactorarUobbce: " HetmtoaMaerwhaM (an
lho«n«iaeef(

theweeU. Tbhie ftietiaaa
kiadnl

otMarencaMv
il acieany>4i

lo the cavy of

a ho wat over

,Baieae,hit«ea.

a, end Aaoi By ilitaain

the wotfc bv Ur FeUrdti^ oT CbriaLchaich. thnwch
wbate blade aU worka pvinted at the aniveiMtjbjiwo
ware rtqaiml to pMa. Tbo tiaaeliea wat
oMd la Mr HoMne. who kal • BMvhlML (

a fuU eipoeure of it, ready for appearing in London
and Oxford at the tame time widi the work of Mr
NV'ood. Hobbea wee remarkable for vi^four of nerve,
and atoadineet of intellect. He used to My, thai in hit
matt complicated arithmrticad calculations he never
mituiok a figure ; and with the tame underiating tte»>
dinett he proMcnted all hit learned un<k<rukinir«. The
high value which be pot on this natural (^ualitr, had
prabably tome influence in rendering him impatient of
lyputilwii, end gave origin to the harsh features which
aome paitt of hit works bear.

Aooording to the oeoount given of him by Dr White
Kennet, be waa ooatidrred in the house of the Earl of

or unaoeountable being ; a
r ^nri reodihr oe^nired by a man who dedi«
to ataay tbo beam by whiob'dloer'arouml him
haeo their mannewmeaMed by !!»>• general intercourm
with othert. Hit amateawnt^ eitrcitm, and todal
intervirara, being tnlw litinl cowtideretians, were die*
tated by his own tlMi^fatt ; and, though not result*
iitg from an uaocoeamaodating temper, appeared ca«
pridooa, bocame they were singular In this noble*
Boao'a hooae he was retained from gratitude and affcc*
tiaa, rather than with a view to any sort of services,
and he lived in case and ploity without any odicial
charge. Mis aMMiiiaga were i|ient in violent eiercite,
twoh a* running aad climbing ateep aaemta, in which
he eucted hiaMoif to fiMigiie. After breakfast, he went
reoad tho family, to wait on the coiiptem, the children,
and the viaitart. That the time peeted till twelve
o'eloek. wbaa he hod a little dinner pmpored for him,
alWr which be retired to hie etudy, when ho tmoked,
tbengbl, end wrote fcr wfmA heart.

tiwcihle that he vat tbaaaioaa to a poweHbl party,
be WW kaaaled with haMtaal apanhoaaioao for his
mfc^. The pinitiB of the Kiaf ww ddoiy valued
by hffli m a pitike of aiuttuieu Aom peraecntion ;
«d he had Laid Afliwtea end eeme othar ftiendt en.

be left in a
aaid forfeer of behy mmtrinHtrt by hit
othert eecribed it to tiw wotUma of ea
Whaa tho Eoriweotftma
■t ■long with hia^ even ia hie

some

ohile

involuntary

,heal-

illr

whoa he mydrsd to be eeavered ea a Ibether bed to
tho reniagi, end aarvived the jouroey only afew days.
He avoided aD eoaeawiien on the ealAect of death.
ICet bat beta aapi^omd, he toareely benevod fai a fb-
tart stole, yet hoaeeme not to faavo beaamMbleof
Imbiiig farward to hit diteolatMa with that placid in.
with wfakh OMn gmerally look beck to the
" _ ' ' ' birth. He reckoned on the oon-
tinoanoF of )iti wha* Ml aoaalitatioa was too much
wom uut to jaalil^ each ospcetatioaa ; and when, in
reply to aoma aasMae iaqMinw> he ww forbid to bopo
for a reeovoiy, b* lay in a atato of lilenee end i
itapeftetioo, which waa ouuciadeil to be in a gmat i
tare lauduwd by the stato of Me mind. Thelaatw
whi(» he oltefea in the fUl pottcetioa of hit I
" I thoU begiad to find «iy hole tocnepoat of the world
by," erhich pfobebiy npitmiil a wirii that his Isst mo.
mtata should be eaempt ftmn pain aad ditturfaance. He
ceaimaed to the Episoopal Clnnrh of England, and
dtdawd that he ptefairMl that religion to all othert ;
yet ho Ikid no conidenw in the utility of religiooa ecr«
viemen hie daatl^bed. ()n one oocaaion. fhaing his
ntidanoe in Fmaoe. when his life wm leriouily in dan*
ger, ha raaartal.tki ariiciialiaM of Aa Baaiah priesta

Hdbbss.

70

H O B B E S,

Hobboj. and the Protestant clergy to submit to some rite wliich
^""V™* would proclaim liim a believer in their respective sys-
tems, and told them, that if they did not desist, he
woidd expose the impostures of their whole fraternity
from Aaron downwards.

■ It is with the writinj^s of Hobbes, and the opinions
-which he circulated, that the public is chiefly concern-
ed. His Mrritings were fitted to make a powerful im-
pression at the time at which they appeared ; but the
character of society has subsequently so much changed,
that they are now comparatively of little interest. His
small treatise De Homine is regarded by tlie philoso-
phical world as the best of his works. In this he, in
eome degree, advanced the science of optics, then in a
rude state. His notions, though crude and inaccurate,
are ingenious and interesting. His moral observations
sometimes breathe the sage spirit of Aristotle. At one
time he, like that author, condenses his meaning in a
few words ; at another he suddenly deviates into a style
of extreme expansion. This chiefly happens when he
applies his doctrines to the opinions and transactions
of his own times. A celebrated living author (Profes-
sor Stewart) justly remarks, that Hobbes, whether right
or wrong, nevei' fails to set his reader a-thinking,
which is the most indubitable proof of original genius.
To attempt to collect a system of moral, political
and religious doctrine from his works, would now ap-
pear ludicrous. In some parts his inquiries are shal-
low and deficient, most especially in his investiga-
tions of our ideas of morality and justice. He consi-
ders a regard for personal advantage as the only law
of man in a state of natural liberty, aud represents all
the obligations of justice and good conduct to our fel
,lows as the consequence of civil contracts formed un-
der the influence of individual prudence. The laws,
he says, are the foundation of justice: before them
justice and injustice are unmeaning words. If this
view of things had been advanced only as a general
description of the actual condition of man under a to-
tal want of laws, as well as the absence of generous
or deliberate reflection, and if he had considered pac-
tions and civil institutions as the means by which men
agree to execute beneficial ends, he could not have
been greatly blamed ; but he regards even eivil com-
pacts as the sole effect of the regard of each man for
his own safety ; and such feelings of kindness and
compassion as most loudly proclaim the social virtues
to be a part of our original nature, are represente<l as
arising solely from a reflection on the possibility that
exists of experiencing in our own persons the evils which
we deplore in others.

In forming this, and some other views, he appears to
have been led astray by the desire of giving what ap-
peared to him a palpable account of human aff'iiri ; but
it partakes too much of those gross maxims which
sometimes indecently obtrude on our notice both
in conversation and books, which foster our worst
passions by boldly representing them as the neces-
sary springs of human conduct. No doctrines can
have a more destructive influence on those finer feel-
ings which arc connected with just reflection and the
encouragement of exalting sympathies, but which re-
quire to be delicately cherished if they are to be pre-
servetl from pollution and degradation. The same love
of palpability seems to have been the origin of that sys-
tem of materialism, or rather that preference of the
language of materialists, which appeared in tlie expla-
iWtions which Hobbes gave of the origin and laws of

thought. By representing justice as founded on positive Hobbet.
law, he overturns the principles of jurisprudence it?elf, '~"~V'*
which must precede law, and determine the propriety
of institutions. If he acknowledged the preservation of
the general welfare to be a valuable end, it was certain-
ly paradoxical to deny that a man, on his first interview
with a stranger on an unknown shore, previously to
the establishment of any mutual understanding, is un-
der obligations to cultivate personal kindness, and to
abstain from violence arid domination. The boundaries
of these early feelings, and the modes in which they
may be best expressed, are not indeed easily defined,
especially if we encounter distraction from the circum-
stance of a numerous population. Therefore it ap-
peared the easiest method to pronounce tlrcm arbitrary,
and in no degree binding, compared to declared pro-
mises, compacts, and promulgated laws. But men may
differ both about the formation and the executioii of
laws, and how are their differences to be decided ?
" They must," says Hobbes, " choose a sovereign power,
arjd to this their whole interests are at once committed."
Such is the origin of regal government ; and from this
simple fact he draws the monstrous conclusion, that
kings can do no wrong ; that tliey must never be re-
sisted ; and that to their hands the lives, properties,
and consciences of the memljers of a state must be per-
petually and unconditionally enfi'usted. That such will
be the state of mankind, if they are barbarous in their
character, jarring in their views, or bereft of spirit ; that
it will even be worse than this, if they are subjugated by
the power of a brutal master, who feels no oliligation to
consult their welfare farther than as it is subservient to
his imagined interest or the gratification of his caprice, is
a fact too often exemplified in the history of the world :
but to erect it into a principle that this oiisht to be the
case, and that no efforts of mankind should be directed
to the formation of any better state of society, is an
idea which, in a reflecting mind like that of Hobbes,
could only be generated by the miserable dissensions
by which he was surrounded. In the days of Crom-
well and the Charles's, the spirit of intolerance was ac-
tive, extravagance contended with extravagance, and
there seemed to be no possibility of terminating the
scene of violence by a temperate discussiod of princi-
ples, or a mutual adjustment of views ; it was therefore
necessary to still the passions by some powerful agent.
The agent that occurred to Hobbes as. the most suit-
able, was the exertion of absolute authority in the hands
of the chief magistrate, and the perpetual establish-
ment of this power seemed necessary for the prevention
of future troubles. As a temporary expedient, he
might have been pardoned for advancing such a posi-
tion, even by those \^ho dissented from him ; but when
he erects it into a universal princijile, he must be re-
garded as an aggressor of the rights and interests of so-
ciety, and a deliberate apologist of tyranny.

In theology Hobbes speculated with equal infelicity.
Insensible both of tiie mysterious nature of his subject,
and the reverence which it required, he examined it
with a minute and daring curiosity, and pronounced
his opinions in the same dogmatic spirit which charac-
terises his other discussions. To retail his notions
would be superfluous. Let it suffice to mention that, in
conformity with his general theory of right and wrong,
he asserts that the attribute of justice has no meaning as
applied to the divine Being, who possesses uncontrol-
led power, aud is not accountable to any superior. His
comments on scripture cannot be read with interest by

HOB 71

any dam of bmb. The Chrutun mutt reg^anl tbem a*
audacMNU and wild, and the infidel as tetUuas and un-
mfning Akhaqgh, with hi« u^ual lore of palpabili-
nr, he asplMln •«■• layalchca, and attempts to r^
dam hia Mibiect to a fcw ahort wl eaqr tfaeorenia, theae
■MMiiipafMBltatha bphcIbbmi which the ai^iit-
•it ftillwr Miactiaa wmU aaggaat. that their Mil^
leBchecy ia t« iinhhiga aaeb i«l%ious views aa hia
leaders 11117 i**** <— iy eafUiued, without fiir^
niafcing any thine aatkhruwj ia their alaad, or enan-
tlie wma feaaa the wiahH which it may have

HOG

flobbea wiU kmg be pointed to as an etoquent and
rensluMo wriMr. but lather fined to excite woodcr
than to gain qiprobation. His inMtifln% howe»ei', are
t of that abhuwaiica which his name eidtea
who hmr* never looltad into his writings.
, bat he seems nerer to have
omI to have been thecnughly siacsn in his
Thon|h the leadaii^ orhis wiitiHs is ob.
, thew le no appwrauBe of the diimmt, de-
sign of impnirinw the crHht of ChriMii
draUy thoimhl th« the pwhKwricn of 'I
WMid ■fiiwuia the mititinil imium of

M

thotof

■ndaaee af liionftaM better adaptod

phtloMphy : and we can only tnm

nally to his writings aa abfaets of ea*

lie epoch in the hialory of ha>

-e VmaafDnditdl WmUr,;

DA

8ae l^elaad'e l^ttw of DaHitml

rm.Aatmj'i
I Hohhee's AVifau {U. Ik
is a seo-port tot
. AHhuMh the iMtbeai
yet it will adadt only

Uiimti Aafarnr's lMl€n tmd
•I'hnLa,

The town is large, and ia composed principally of hot*
built in the ordinary style. The mansion oi' the Uulah,
or governor, the mosques, the custom-house, and the
houaes of the principal merchants, are hutit of stone
There ia a small casUe near the sea, but it is not ca-
pable of much defence. At the distance of a mile and
a half from Hoii«ida is a well of eicellent water, from
which the town is supplied, the water nearer the town
being eery had. Hodeida is the sea-port of Beetlefackie,
a town in the interior, about SO miles from the coast,
and only about hall' a day's journey fram the hilU whero
the oodce grows.

The Dotah of Hodeida is accountable only to the I roam ;
but hia j«*isdietion is confined to the city. His reve-
nues naisJH pntly of the duties upon exported coffee.
All the mercantile transacttena at Hodeida are carried
I dollars and cavears ; 40 careers making
The cavear is an imaginary cuin<
All foreign eoias pasa current here. The coffee from
Beetlcfrckio^ which ia intended fur India, Muscat, or
Eurapa, b sent br land to Mocha ; but that which is
imannod for Jidifa, is shipped at Hodeida. East Long.
49* SS'.and Nettii LaL I4» 40^, aoeording to Lord Va-
lentia's chart. See Niehuhr's Tma^U Uiwigk Armbia,
sect. IX. chap. S. ; and Milbumc's Ort«<*la/ Coommtcc,
vol ' ><&

it ; '. ^00 AoRiovLTtms. ml. i. p. S99<'

HUUAKTH, William, the eeicbratod painter, was
the grandson of a yeoman, who paeMsaod a small teae*
ment in the vale of Baroptun, near Kendal ia West-
lasfeland. He had thrso aooa. llio aldost ■uccoedod
his Grther in hie little ftmhaU ; tho second settled at
TrMthedi. near Krwlal, and was renurkable for a ta-
liMt at preriueial paotry ;* the third son, who was the
tehor af iIh paiator. after baring kept a school in the
1, and pursued the aameoocu*

ir« tnM ikat M •« I
balttoflMi

I sIMsitnhr. whs osM hMiihs asise pM» tf «H I
batahlBraiUfeiyMrs " TWw <1>fc sitslni." fcs «
fadrrooiibckUls.^— Wte4M*aatl«al ■orasUUs r—nsttk
ker, •• M criiKal aa s^nw of aaSarv as kts an*iw. fm itm mt<

I kla» ir mj am *■• %ti4j tMogk i« brw •
sr (••« s tatfMf *^ SI bt« -

OslsH t m iMat hM taiags ««« «aM (0 lkw« b44 a
•flk«»atiaBMB*»tl Ui aa fMlaJ utmm wan as>

saetokMra^wtlasMsflMs fiars. U ssy eaa. tir mm;

TMa plaf was aalM T%t Dnmwttm ijf Tnf li vas urittn m mtnta, auKb m ih« manacr of Le-
f* ** Vsfs. er Iks aarinM rivack tnma. Tka ooiUn •»• am tma siitnl/ akanrH, IW Um risft of im jian na* all rvprsataittf.
Xtrrj ksrs ess la \ha ^ttea, ae UM ilM 4rtmeMs |aiisia rss il n it atw*arj M •rfrata* la ib« wboir parfk. The nmxiMt korw—
H««M <n«<^ ky Ika >Ml« ia» (sry tt t»iwiii ilw t^ af giisi n| ito taraiaf at Hm o«| ■ saw all rvprrMia*- I re.
■aaksraaavkaiMttMhaaiaAlaaHdasi bat, aa I kapyrase leba akaM OMwIks* liH(kjyMliaM«r«M»sM|.ullM««( esMbk
,lf««aaiiJaMa<(ha*Hi9babtpk Tka sssfiwaaarabniai— af kasaasylasaa abaal^^Mlkt^ einliiniMUsi Ihagasaa.
■ assyarWtaB»<ag»hk Iksasws aMIiiliIsi ksaatllwf eaa iksasme smii>^ a»biaii J^Plka bo*' 1 ,raUrrt». ««ra

lM«ea«^|ksgn>s Aalkaasf XaMts.tartk8y •«talk«grMaitop*a(atoab<U OmffSnm, mOc ir .uu ol tba

I"**** <na*a. uamattO ysa. iknv ••*• mma ipsriaiass fw ikrw 4afa *agiOm tfMa year tk>«« ihr..><, ... I>m<toa aruuM
l| SB4MaMaM.M«oM>eM)«ar esaAiaan.ihslraaa*wr«vaa aaiMasshsViewsllpHaMA. Tka etkMlfcm was b*(ua
a Mae pwMM* IbMiike *M«|s •• a (raal ssaa*, ««avp>rf br tks «t«ll, aksM a foanar «r a ssNs «C aks* fcv irM la veto la
a krt^ an«M WliiilirsiHi 1 aa ika ptaftt. aakks ike esrt af Ika wotM. kaia asasMasd a watj ftat nrt of pupli c*tr aiaesi
laayikapraiiiM aaa bagaa by tka ailiwiti aT •*■ pailil«,aa4 wart fallaaai ^ a jisnisa aa bal>.batk. TMs aatpl bad ta far

utikaaa kla ball, ikal fcs waaM aiAr |ka |aaaaa la amst hta back, and avaa la fUj Ma tddla ibare" «<!<> drt>ilu« so sccl-

d«m lba« Mbl iks laamsa, Ireai U* ball naatag <•*; alik him. the iMrrslar pru«— di ;— " Thu accidtni rtxhtt uilUiiMd lh4n da-

r*aMlk*pfa(SMSaat sad ikt Oxm, ar J^ pMldH^ at Ika fdaea. araiwd ktawalr ao itall o< Ih* in.
rftsafiksspaMsMrawwakiaHaMbBldaatar. Tkfc ikwaiiar was Ika aawt Wapsitsal pmaaft la ths

MawaaaaMifaaadar Harta^ataaad Miiij Oadiii.arfatksrikaasak Ikalaf aar saslial Maffc Tkapisy

by 1Mb tkatasssi witk a aaa(. wklsfc aas—wd Ike daabSa paspass a* a pi^Mi aad a pnlmuai Ibr bl« dMty ga** iba
a( Ika taaAa laudsato ikay ears abaat •• bikwd. aMt H aallad aoL tkc adats «as by eat, to BMka iks spMUiors

sr^asiaiad *<lk ibair

IfcOi

I cbaractaT*. nil tka akala drsMilla

ana graal dida aa Ikt atsft. Tlx audfiw* bdng

.!■<••, aa H>i^m a fr« partkulara r«ap«ctfnt ikk pertical
<li** place b^ Mr Walkrr, tka laeiurar sa
s ba M^i. of old llnyanb. kad aAaa 4a-
' t>« held ih< ptautb. u€ wai Icadtaf kit
...-«}—■• Ha wa»,*' (viidDun Mr Wai-
N<i« an inciinit ur an >h>ari.'iijr In
I aad salaMUkad rvpuu.— ir any
uialf »ae( e«ar Ika what* paritk.
••wl aa Ika laannsn at
M Ika kwMrau at bi« t|f •
I in M& in Ika 1

78

HOGARTH.

a O 11

Ha(;>rt]i. pation in Ship Court, in the Old Bailey. William Ho-
^"■^V"""^ garth was bom in the parish of St Barlhoioiiiew in
1698, and seems to have received only the usual edu-
cation of a mechanic. He was bound apprentice to
Ellis Gamble, a silversmith in Cranbourn Court, Leices-
terfields ; and was to learn in that profession only the
branch of engraving arms and ciphers on metal. Be-
fore his apprenticeship had expired, his genius for
drawing began to point to the comic path which it af-
terwards pursued. Having one day rambled to High-
gate with some companions, he witnessed a quarrel in
a public-house, in which one of the disputants received
a blow with a quart pot, tliat made the blood stream
down his face. Such a subject, one would think, was
little calculated for gay effect ; but humour is not an
over-delicate faculty, and the distorted features of the
wounded sufferer, it seems, so much attracted the fan-
cy of young Hogarth, that he sketched his portrait on
the spot, with the surrounding figures, in ludicrous ca-
ricature. His apprenticeship was no sooner expired,
than he entered into the aCademy of St Martin's Lane,
and studied drawing from the life, in which he never
attained to great excellence. It was character, the pas-
sions, the soul, that his genius was given him to copy.
In colouring, he proved no great master ; his forte lay
in expression, not in tints and chiaro-scuro. It is not
exactly known how long he continued in obscurity,
but the first piece in which he distinguished himself as
a painter is a representation of Wanstead Assembly. In
this are introduced portraits of the first Earl Tylney,
his lady, their children, tenants, &c. The colouring of
this is said to be better than that of some of his later
and more highly finished pieces.

From the date of the earliest plate that can be ascer-
tained to be the work of Hogarth, it may be presumed,
that he began business on his own acco)int^t least as
early as the year 1 720. His first erx^^Mu^tAifieems
to have been the engraving of arms ^HBHBL l^i'l^ '>
the next to design and furnish plates fl^|BHeIlers. *
Among these, were designs for tiudibras,*witn Butler's
head. His Hudibras (says Horace Walpole) was the
first of his works that marked him as a man above the
common ; yet what made him then noticed now sur-
prises UB, to find so little humour in an undertaking so
congenial to his talents.

The success of his plates was sufficient to bring him
business as a portrait painter ; but it was not perma-
nent, or attended with much reputation. The author
of the volume of anecdotes respecting him, affirms with
confidence, that though not a portrait painter, who
could gratify the self-love ofhis employers, he drew
individual likenesses in hisJH^^ieces. One of his
most striking scenes of this^Pi; was the examination
of the committee of the House of" Commons into the
cruelties exercised on the prisoners of the Fleet to ex-
tort money from them. On the table of the committee
are the instruments of torture. A prisoner in rags,
half starved, appears before them, with a good counte-
nance, that adds to the interest. On the other side is
the confronted and atrocious gaolor, with villany, ter-
ror, and the eagerness to tell a lie, depicted in his fea-
tures, and expressed in his gesture. This was Bam-
bridge, the warden of the fleet, who, with Huggins
his predecessor, were both declared guilty of extortion

and cruelty. In 1730 Hogarth made a clandestine HiMrnrth.
marriage with the daughter of Sir James Thornhill, """"^r"*
sergeant painter, and history painter, to George I. Ho-
garth was at this time called in the Craftsman an inge-
nious designer and engraver ; but his father-in-law re-
garded liim as so unwortliy of his daughter, and w^as
so much offended by the match being a stolen one, that,
he was not easily reconciled to it. About the same pe-
riod our painter began his celebrated Harlot's Progress,
some scenes of which were purposely put in the way
of Sir James Thornhill to bespeak his favour. Sir
James remarked, that the man who could produce such
works could maintain a wife without a portion ; but
he afterwards relented, and the young pair took up
their abode iu his house.

By the appearance of his Harlot's Progress, his fame
was completely established, and his finances raised, by
the rapid sale of the plates that were struck from the
pictures. He might be said in this production to create
a new species of painting, — the moral comic ; and in
the furniture, dresses, and details of the scenes, to give
a history of the manners of the age. The Rake's Pro-
gress, which appeared in 1735, though, in the opi-
nion of many, superior in merit, had not so much suc-
cess from want of novelty. In the following year, am-
bitious of distinguishing himself as a painter of historj',
he finished the Scripture scene of the Pool of Bethesda,
and of the Good Samaritan ; but the burlesque turn of
his mind mixed itself with all subjects, and here with
disadvantage. Nor was he more successful in his pic-
ture of Danae, where the old nurse tries the gold by
ringing it with her teeth. His fame was however now
so high, that Swift complimented him in tlie Legion
Club, and Fielding in his preface to Joseph Andrews.
Theophilus Cibber had also brought his Rake's Pro-
gress on the stage in the shape of a pantomime.

His printed proposals, dated January 25, ascertain
his Company of Strolling Players, and his Marriage a
—la Mode, to have been then ready for sale. He had
also projected a Happy Marriage, by way of a coun-
terpart to his Marriage a la Mode. The time suppo-
sed was immediately after the return of the parties
from church. The scene lay in the hall of an antiqua-
ted country mansion. On one side the married couple
were represented sitting. Behind them was a group
of their young friends of both sexes in the act of break-
ing bride-cake over their heads. In front appeared
the father of the young lady grasping a bumper, and
drinking, with a seeming roar of exultation, to the fu-
ture happiness of her and her husband. By his side
was a table covered with refreshments ; jollity rather
than politeness, was the designation of his character.
Under the screen of the hall, several rustic musicians
in grotesque attitudes, together with servants, tenants,
&c. were arranged. Before the dripping-pan stood a
well fed divine, with his gown and cassock, with his
watch in his hand, giving directions to a cook dressed
all in white, who was basting a haunch of venison.
Among the faces of the principal figures, none but that
of the young lady was completely finished. Hogarth
had been often reproached for his inability to give
grace and dignity to his heroines. The bride was
meant to vindicate his pencil from this imputation,
The effort, however, was unsuccessful. The girl was

• Thirteen folio prints, with his name to each, appeared in Aubrey de la Mortraye's Traveis, 1T23. Seven smaller prints for
Apuleius's Golden Am, 1724. Fifteen head pieces to Beaver's Military Punishments of the Aneients; and five frontispieces for the
transiatlon of Cassandra, in five vols. 1725. Seventeen cuts for Hudibnis, 1726, Two for Ferseus and Andromeda, 1739, Two
for Milton, the date uncertain ; and a variety of others between 1726 and 1733.

HOGARTH.

73

pretty, but her teaturt* were nn«<1urat«d. She might
bare attracted noticv ■• a chambermaid, bat would
have failed to extort applMM* a* a woman of fahion.
The pafwa and hia mliiiM; — oeiate» were more la-
boaredtiuBaajr olhar parti aftiw picture. The paio'
ter mt down with ■ rtaolwUm to delineate beauty ini-
prored by art, but Mcma, ■ oaual, to hare deviated into
, orcoald not birip neglecting hia orif(inal pur.
to Ittxuhate in men congenial ideaa. He found
in abort, o«t of lu dement in the parloor, and
• hatBMd in ipiui of caae and amiMenent to
the kkoban frck

Soon after th« peace at Ais-la-Chapelle, he went over
to Fnnoe, and waa taken into coatody while he waa
Am cate of that town ; a eircnmatanoe which
in Ua picture, entitled, O tke Roatt
Barf if OU Smjimmi, pttbUthed 1749- He waa ac
tMllycanedbdoMtliegoTenMraaa apy; and after
a Tcrr Mrict eriminaliwi. eommittad a priaoner to
Grmoaim hia hndtoid, on hia promiiing that Honrth
iha«M DcC M oat of tlM bonae till he waa to embark

fcvEngland. rrniiiai tii thi ■■Inmil. hi hail In

bawd with a atiiidinaai and janctBeaa whkJ>beti>oiight
B Fnalidbnan, but wkicb betray the extreme
lerbbaBMnariL In the airceta be waa aami
rade. A laltcrad bag, «r a pair tt aak
kim> tritb bolaa m ibaaBa divw a toiiaiii of inqma*
t MBgv^ woni Mm, and vbidi tbere werv acolcb
Iriab —%!■<■ on tba apot who ooaU mlarpet
to the Frwiib. Bat bk nlcaaantrr wa« i itifiiWiwl
hj what happinail when ha wm tirawing the gatoa of
Ulaia; far tbm^th the innoeaMn «r l£ 4a«« wm
parftctiy apparent on tba taatimany of atber
babadaboM bin, wbicli wer« by nomaana
aanU aarr* Mm ponoae oT an MMinear, he waa
loblbytharn—MilMH, tbatbadnot dwoMeabeen
•etMBv iigDMl. ba tboobl ^«v been ab%id to hare
biMg bm ap bniMdialaiy ao the r—parti. Two
MMi wev> tfaaM prwidaJ to eanray hi-r — ->^ip.
b—d ; nar did tlMv qait bam tOl ba wa* Ita

ftan tba •horau Taey then apua him muw iiK.r a top
«• tba deck, and told him he wm at liberty to ptoecad
«abia Tayafavilhaat ftrtbar Imlliiin ar altan^

to be iiftMirt la aar pafaMcr.

In I7M^ be appawad in tba character of an author,
•nd pafaliabad a ^aarto eolmne. cBtitlad» Tim Ammkmmt
•/'£^««!y, wiiitanwitbamwarisimtfaa'^- -"
IdaMortaata. Hia intention «m to
ia tba line af baaaty. and tba

to the eye. He
I Dr Benjenin Hoadlay tbai

■■d tba Beif. Mr Tewnley r rlai tbapwfcai The

ftaaily af Ha^th rriiltiil whi tba fat ibaat ef bia
Aaalyaia wm prtMirf aC m tba ftamMWt diamMm ba
badwiibbia 111 I intbaconHaeftbawa*.did
nat—diliiimiiiTiibialin ill i, If baaaty nally
did cnairt in any HtftieBlw btad af Hnaa. tb«a wen
frw niatMn laM likely to diwaMT tbm thmi HMMtb.
and ha WM aa mataplMidn : b« tba latealka eTan
aspledcd theory wanU ba now wperflaaMk

Aboat 1 737. hia bratbetwin-law, Mr Tbambil, f. la valka M. hnaMor. In iku caM of Myi*,

•ignedtheplaetaf JCa^'aaammatadalav, inflraawaf Wbkk,BraWaf to the quick. /«< oiakau* mile (

Hogtfth, who aooa dW mMain ontnB^ in naait* '" °°"^'* ^ "•(u'^*' 'o^ lo (aait,

ingtha^volrad hiniinaeayMB<bai^i. Tbecolliction ^xJH^T^S^ "^ '

ofpiitaniafSirLaMfchai^tMiaaldhinMybypab. a~ •n>i*]«ta'4|

. * ^ • Jj'tJ*' •■•''^ '^ **^ ^ TaM», 1731. (for ■ potm oi w cJ<i«d. «« iKi,«t«.) raBUiiwn« • «•«« aT Ike OM ef BurllMlao.
!!???'_y* 'f ^ ■bttwartOot m tad l>tt|iaturi.c ik« OuU «/ Uuodo.'. c<Mcb, at »«li m is » ludKiaut f^oare oa Um ailgeet .f

lie auction ; and the celebrate*! painting of Sigirniuiula, JIog»rth.
aaid to be the work of Corregio, ( Nf r Walpole thought """V*^
that it was by Furino,) cxcitetl his emulation. Fn)m
a contempt of the ignorant virtunsi of the age, many of
whom he had seen buhblcd by vile copies, as well n%
from having never «tuilie<l the great Italian masters, he
peranaded himself that the praiaea bestowed on their
gloriout works were only the effects of prejudice. He
went farther, he determined to rival the anrient<t, and
unfortunately chose the subject we have mentioned.
Hia Sigismunda i* described by Walpole as tlie repre-
wntatinn of a maudlin strumpet, just turned out of
keeping, and with eyes red with rage and usquebaugh.
Her Angara bloadred by her lover's heart, (the blood
WM aftarwarda expnnged from her fingers,} that lay
balore her like that of a sheep for dinner. None of the
aober grief; no dignity o( suppressed anguish; no
settled meditation of the fate ahe meant to meet ; no
amovoaa warmth turned holy by despair ; in short, all
waa wanting that ahoald have been there ; all waa
there that aucfa a story w&dd have banished from
a miod capable of conceiving such complicated woe,—
woe so alamly felt, and yet ao tenderly. Hogarth's
MiAmMBoe WM more ridiculous than any thing he
Dad aaar lidiculed. He «rt the ortce of £400 on it,
and had it returned on his hanoa by the person for
whom it WM painted. This unfortnnate picture which
WM the aoarca'of so much vexation to Hogarth, at
iea4 made a versifier of him. He a<ldres*ed an epistle
to a frimd, ocean nn ail by Sir KJchard Grosvenor (now
Lord,) retamiag tba pictHia en the artist's hands. The
vefw* BM aplcMtk nd caoeattad, without a partida
ef wit or hamoor.

The laat memonblc event in his life, was his quarrri
with .Mr Willua. Hia ceonectian with the < —-* r-n.
bably indocadbiB toqvittba Uoe of part^ v

a print, .SiptSwwii 17SS;
tiikiiiiM, J rit i,.-... iic »iu attacked "~ — •"ti, in a
MMWherof the S'orth Briton, which nr^ > cari«

catnre of Wilkes. At an early pcnoci <ii m-. career,
Hogarth had ventured to aamil Rope himself in the
biBM of bia poetical repalatien, * and (ram hia exaqM<
radon be cacanod, etttir fav hia abaearity. or by the
pradenca of the poet. Bathe wm now deatined to feel
tbe laab of a writer, inArior indeed in faaaa^ bat equal
in tbe talenta of vitapantion. Churchill araiigi il the
ematan ef bia mInb Wilkao, by hia EpiitU to Ho.
fthk, B««, indaad. tba hr%htiat of hia worka, and in
which the aeveraat ef bia atrakM MI upon bia age.
H^BWth fataUatod by caricaturing Churchill under die
Jbnn of acaaonial bear, with a dub and a pot of par*
tor. Never, m Walpole truly remarks, did two angry
■en^ of their abilities, throw mud with leM deitterity.

it diaaista to be noticed, that, amidst the bitterest
invactivca an Hogaith, hi* enemy, Churchill, caocetked
a d^gTM of BMrit to him with which hia wanaeat ad»
Hirara may ba contenled, aiul a dcecriptian of bu ge>
MM to WMch they would find it diffictilt to add a ma*
tMiali '

VOL. XI. rABT I.

HOG 74

H*gu(k. Each made for each, as bodies for iheir soul,

"■, y ^' So an to form one true and perfect whole.

Where a plain story to the eye ia told,

Which we conceive the moment we behold ;

Hd^Brth tinrivallM utands, and shall engage

Unrivall'd praise to the moet distant age.

Hogarth having be«n said to be in his dotage when
he pivxiuced his print of the bear, it should seem was
provoked to make the following additions to this print,
in order to give a farther specimen of his still existing
genius. In the form of a framed picture on the pain-
ter's pallet, he has represented an Egyptian pyramid,
on the side of which is a Cheshire cheese, and round it
JtSOOO per annum, and at the foot a Roman veteran in
a reclining posture, designed as an allusion to Mr Pitt's
resignation. The cheese is meant to allude to a former
speech of Mr Pitt's, in which he said that he would ra-
ther subsist a week on a Cheshire cheese and a shoulder
of mutton, than submit to the enemies of his country.
But to ridicule this character still more, he is, as he lies
down, firing a piece of ordnance at the standard of
Britain, on which is a dove, with an olive branch, the
emblem of peace. On one side of the pyramid is the
city of London represented by the figure of one of the
Guildhall giants going to crown the reclining hero.
On the other side, is the King of Prussia, in the cha-
racter of one of the Caesars, but smoking his pipe. In
the centre, stands Hogarth himself, whipping a dan-
cing bear, (Churchill,) which he holds in a string. At
the side of the bear is a monkey, designed by Mr
Wilkes. Between the legs of the little animal is a mop-
stick, on which he seems to ride like a child on a
hobby-horse. At the top of the mop'stick is the cap of
liberty. The monkey is undergoing the same disci-
pline as the bear. Behind the monkey is the figure of
a man, but with no lineaments of face, and playing
on a fiddle. This was designed for Earl Temple, in
allusion to the inexpressiveness of his countenance.

Amidst these disgraceful hostilities, Hogarth was vi-
sibly declining in his health. In 1762, he complained
of an inward pain, which proved to be an aneurism,
and became incurable. The last year of his life was
employed in retouching his plates, with the assistance of
several engravers, whom he took with him to Chis-
•wick. On the 25th of October 176'4, he was conveyed
from thence to his house in Leicester Fields, in a very
weak condition, yet remarkably cheerful ; and receiv-
ing an agreeable letter from the celebrated Dr Franklin,
he drew up a rough draught of an answer to it In
the night time, however, he was seized with a vomit-
ing, probably owing to a circumstance of which he had
boasted before going to bed, viz. that he had eat a
pound of beef steakes to his dinner, and expired about
two hours after, aged 67. His corpse was interred in
the Church-yard of Chiswick, on a monument which
bears a simple inscription on one side, and on the other
emblematic ornaments, with some verses by Garrick.

In his private character this celebrated man is repu-
ted to have been hospitable and liberal, as well as accu-
rately just in his dealings, but his manners were coarse
and vulgar, and his powers of delighting seem to have
been restrained to his pencil. To be a member of clubs
of illiterate men was the utmost of his social ambition,
and even in those assemblies he was oftener sent to

H O L

Coventry than any other member. The slightest con-
tradiction is said to have transported him to rage.
His genius as a comic painter is of that strong descrip. '
tion which breaks down the partition between con-
noisseurship and the popular taste in the enjoyment of
it It is merit which his satyrist yet ablest panegyrist
so well expressed, " which we conceive the moment
we behold." The critic Du Bos often complained that
no history painter of his time went through a series of
actions. What Dubos wished to see done, Hogartlr
performed, though probably without knowing that he
was so obligingly complying with a critic's request.
In his Harlot's Progress he launches out his young ad-
venturer a simple girl upon the town, and conducts-
her through all the vicissitudes of wretchedness to a
premature death. This was painting to the under^
standing and to the heart. None had before made the
comic pencil subservient to instruction ; nor was the
success of this painter confined to his persons. One
of his excellencies consisted in what may be termed-
the furniture of his pieces ; for as in sublime historical'
representations, the fewer trivial circumstances are per-
mitted to divide the spectators attention, the greater is
the force of the principal figures; so in scenes of familiar
life, a judicious variety of little incidents contributes an
air of versimilitude to the whole. The rake's levee
rooip, (Walpole observes) the nobleman's dining room,
the apartments of the husband and wife in marriage d
/n 7noi/e, the alderman's parlour, the bed-chamber, and'.
many others, are the history of the manners of the age.*
For a scientific view of the works of this great art-
ist, we must refer the reader to Walpole's Anecdotes of
Painters, which we have already quoted. — A complete
list of his prints, at least the most complete that has
been made out, will be found in the Biographical An-
ecdotes, by Nichols. Walpole has made one remark
upon them in his eulogy of Hogarth, against the truth of
which his works bear ocular demonstration, viz. that
his delicacy is superior to that of the Dutch painters,
or rather that his indelicacy is less. The illustration
of tijis would be a task more easy than agreeable. Mr
Gilpin, in his Essay on Prints, observes, that in design
Hogarth was seldom at a loss. His invention was fer-
tile, and his judgment accurate. An improper inci-
dent is rarely introduced. In composition, he conti-
nues, we see little in him to admire ; in many of his
prints, the deficiency is so great, as to imply a want of
all principle, which makes us ready to believe that
when we do meet with a beautiful group, it is the ef-
fect of chance. Of the distribution of light, according
to the same writer, he had as little knowledge as (rf
comjK)sition. Neither was Hogarth a master of draw-
ing. But of his expression, in which the force of his
genius lay, we cannot speak in too high terms ; in
every mode of it he was truly excellent. The passions
he thoroughly understood, and all the effects which
they produce in every part of the human frame; he had
the happy art also of conveying his ideas with the same
precision with which he conceived them, (u)

HOLBEIN, John, or Hans, an eminent painter,
was born at iiasle, in Switzerland, in the year 14-98. He
was instructed in the art by his father John Holbein,
whom he very soon surpassed. Holbein was the par-
ticular friend of the celebrated Erasmus. At his re-

* Among the small arlicJei of furaiture in the scenes of Hogarth, (says the compiler of the anecdotes of hia life) a few objects may

speedily become uninielligibic, because their archetypes being out of use, and of perishable naturt^, can no longer be found. Such is
the liorc for larks, a circular board, with pieces of looking-giats inserted in it, hung up over the chiiiinty-jjiece of the distressed poet;
•nd the Jew's cake, (a dry tasteless biscuit, perforated with many holes, and formerly given away in greut quantities at the feast of
the payMTtr) generally used only as a f y-trap, and hung up as such against the wall in the siith plate of the Harlot's Progress.

H O L

T5

H O L

HtJiMte. quest be vinted London, where he wtf paboniied
■"""V"™^ by Sir Tbomas M«>re, to wbom ErMnnu had intro-
duced him. Sir Thootai empWed him in p«intiiig the
whole «f hk &mily, anil s«vml of his rdatioas and
fiiewh. and he aliowMl him an apartment in hi* own
hmiait. where he continupd for three years. When King
Henry VIII. saw these performances, he was »o much
struck with the talent which they displayed, that he
took Holbein into his service, and honoared him with
hit patnoane and kindness durins the rest of his life.

It ia a singular circumstance, Uiat Holbein always
painted with his left hand. He succeeded equally
m oil, water colours, and distemper. After he arrived
in England, ha lc»n«d the art of miniatare painting
ftoB Laeas Comelii, and carried it to a \'eTy high de>
pvcv es pertpctioii.

In tha F1ae«MineeoIlectiaii,aK the portraits of Mar-
tin I.ttthar, Sir Thonaa Man, RklMrd Soothwell, and
of Holbein, all painted by oar aMtbor. The '* Sacnice
at Abraham,'* which has been imich admired, is in the
—hinft «f tte King of France, along with several por-
ttail* eseeatad by Holbein.

In the library of the unisMsity of Baale are several
of Holbrin't works in the highiat prcaemdoo. A few
are prtaerre<l, which he yainted beAre he wm 15 year*
oM ; one of which he drew opaa a mgn for a writinc-
master. The portrait* of UmmU, Ua «t<h, aid cfai»-
ren, in the same gronp, are
psctarM of Heibem in this
enr Saviour, m ngnt <
the Supper; the Body
fisien; a L«Mr«tia; a V(
of"

The

m, the Passion of
the InMitution of
Saviour alter the Cruri-
a Cupid; ami portraits
firmjaaa i* raprnenied
pan Matthew. In the
r lifarwjr ■• praMTnJ ■ c«pv of EiawBui*! Eicm
Ala /a«r. wWch he had prMantarf to H«IUiB.SrS»
the margin of it with
, tiane with the pen. An ctjitlen'of tMa
waa pnfaliahed at Basle, ro 1976. by Charic* Patin, who
got the ordinal akaiciies copied by .StMtUr nf Brme,
and engraved fair Marian. A new e<li << work,

in Latin, Fwncw, ami fierman, with u. ^^ of the

orifiari dmigm engraven on wood, was published by

M. Haas in 1780. The paintings of Holbein on the
organ of the cathedral are still to be seen.

The Dance of Death on the walls of the cemetery of
the Duminicans at Basle, was not painted, as has ot\en
been said, by Holbein, but by .Tohn Klauber, at the de-
sire of the council, when the plas;ae ravafretl tliat city.
These walls were pulled down in 1 805. The paintings
had been restored in 1558, 1616, l658, and 1703.
Since the year 1792, they have been almost entirely ef-
faced. From these paintings it is probable that Hol-
bein took the idea of coropoeing the famous drawings
of the Dance of Death ; in which he has shewn so
much judgment and imagination, that even Rubens
conciescenaeil to study and copy them. It consisted of
44 designs, done with the pen, and sli<;htly shaded
srith Indian ink. These designs were engraved by
Haller, and more recently by M. de Mechel, a cele-
brated artist of Basle. The origiiMb were sold, along
with the famou* collection of Crosat at Paris, to .M.
FIvicliman of Straaburg. In the reign of the Em-
peror Joseph II. the Prince (iallitain, the Russian affl'
iMwsador at Vienna, purchased them, and carried them
to 9t Petersbnrg. Holbein died in the year 1354, in
the 56lh year c? hit age. See Coxe's Travel* ia Smit-
uriand, vol. i. p. l62.

HOLDKN S TiMPCRAMtNT of the Musical Scale. In
1770, Mr JohQ Hi>lden, in a wurk on music, in long
quarto, rvoommended a system of tuning, in which each
of the fiftha, ascept thnt on X G, should be flattened
;th of a major coooDa ; prodadni: a perfect or untem-
perrd major seventh ; and a major third and major
6i)h, alike tempered by the ftb t>f a major comma, but
in fsmlioiy direction*, as Mr Farey ha* shewn in the
PUIamtlmeal Mtgoxine, vol. xxxvi. p. 46; and Mr Lis*
ton ia m EtMf *m Prrfeti Intonation, p. 22.

The knw gentleman, in p. 8^ desCTibes this system
ao bajag " nearly what i< in common uu ;" and in p. 1 42,
gtrea it the prHerence over the scale which Mr Hawkes
at last adopted, (via. V — 1 C. see his Temperament) ; on
which scctHint. we nhall here preM-nt the musical stu-
dent with a table of the beau of each of the 72 con-
rorrfs in Mr Holdcn's system, calculated on purpose fur
our work, via. :

I—

*

t

♦ 1 »

fi

7

4

b

c

B

tB

A

to

G

irF

F

E

t.E

D

%

«l«00000 19 59
555.00000 II 4fl
512 40 1.5 10 44
45.<>403I5 9 39
•M.4<HI5 a 94
»S79M« 7 91
i0».79M9 4 86
«.VI.409I5 5 <S
19910915 4 17
IMMSSS 9 14

n^aseu t 9

4CJMU 1 4

0 0 0

4«'l.0000
45'OOOr)
♦2h7920
40I.9M5
yTM9t9
999 1097
99fl.GftS
9W>.7!W0
30D74«U
S96 5724
««<06l7
»51 §703
240.0000

0

... ^

1 1 ViM

118074

1OJ0M»

100lt9

40 4905

H9449

9f<.l2l9

7.9»^

749*9

7.1990

0
4:2^798
5.9396

4.9999

35.6605

4.4665

31.8555

39900

3.7401

SJ64«

3J4I5

93.8995

9.9659

0

4.4778
4.9m4
*J0fO09
3.7802
SJ799
9J500
9.1920
9.99S9
>1&6B59
&979S
SJK)63
9J880

0
3.3500
3.1920
S.MSS
ni5.m59
9.6733
2.5063
9.3880
9.9.<n9
9.1339
t.00OI
1.8751
1.7966

0
8.9330

637110
79800
7.4909
7.I2S6
6.6830

47.66.M)
59704

42.5799
5.33«6
4.9999

35.6(i05

0

11.2074

106802

10.0195

40.4365

9.9443

36.1219

79902

7.4903

7.1,'nro

6.6915

27.0245

5.9775

n^

X -Hf-t-m
vdM«rik*NM».

VitiMt»s«ia
I'sTMaa

«*f.
sTUaa

•riiVm

sTliksa

rut.
•rvdisa

rui,

•TMhoa

SUrf.

•rvrniaa

■sMiia 1" sftlaM. 1

In colnmn 2. the netea are set down in the
WUf interval in Paray'a natliiin : eoL 9. is
to the octave above taaw-diy C ; and th
eipitaaad hi the sis MIowinf iiilniii, all of
limhH^ or beating $harp, u i ipnaiiJ at the

HoUea's

Tnnpeta-

iiieot.

ef the wreral columns, except \)E in col. 6, and $G in
col. 7, which are the reverse of all the other fourths
and fif\hs, in this system : in which only two of the
notes diflier fWrni theae sinee adopted by Mr William
Hawkoa. Sec HawbW Td

76

HOLLAND.

Hdden'a In a subsequent edition of his work, in octavo, enti-

Tcuipen- i\^^ << An Essay towards a rational System of Music,"

inent. j^^ Holden, from having, unfortunately, adopted a

^'■^'"~' defective rule for calculating the Grave Harmonics

of a consonance, (see that Article), conceived, that he

had legitimately introduced the prime number 7 into

musical ratios ; and thereupon, in the 2d part of his

book, grounds a great many unfounded and false rules
and conclusions, regarding harmonics: in particular,
he gives an ascending and a descending scale, which,
when combined, contains 24 notes within the octave,
eleven of which involve the number 7 in their numeri.
cal ratios. (?)

Holdcn's
Tempera-
ment.

HOLLAND.

H^nd.

xdoLLAND, one of the provinces of the kingdom of
"— -v-"" the Netherlands, and, before the formation of that
Situation kingdom, the most considerable of the united provinces
boundaries, of the Netherlands, is bounded on the west by the
and extent. German Ocean, or North Sea ; on the north by the
Zuyder Zee, which separates it from the province of
Friesland ; on the east, by the same sea, which sepa-
rates it from the province of Overyssel, and by the
province of Utrecht, and part of Guelderland ; and on
the south by tlie province of Zealand, and part of Bra-
bant. It is situated between the latitude of 51° 40' and
530 Ky north, and the longitude of 3" 56' and 5° 30' east
of London. Its greatest extent, from south to north,
including the isle of Texel, is about 90 miles, and from
cast to west not above 25 miles in some places, and
above 40 in others, it being of a very irregular figure,
and extremely narrow towards its northern extremity.
According to the calculation taken in the year 1554,
there were upwards of 300,000 morgens of land in this
province, each morgen being about two English acres.
The states of Holland and Zealand, in a remonstrance
made soon after this year to the Earl of Leicester, con-
tended, that these two provinces, with all their heath,
downs, and grounds delved out, could make in all but
about 500,000 morgens ; and De Witt, in his work on
the true interests of Holland, calculates that there can-
not possibly be more than 400,000 morgens of land in
this province, down and heath not included.

This province is divided into South Holland, com-
monly called Ug Holland ; and North Holland, gene-
rally called West Friesland, and sometimes Water-
land ; there are also subdivisions, the principal of
which will be afterwards noticed. Both South Hol-
land and North Holland contain a great many consi-
derable cities, besides a vast number of large and beau-
tiful villages. In South Holland the principal places
are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Leytlen, Haer-
lem, Dordrecht or Dort, Delft, the Briel, Gorcum,
Gouda, &c. Rhineland is a subdivision or district in
South Holland, the capital of which is Leyden : it
contains within its jurisdiction 45 large boroughs and
villages. This subdivision is bounded on the west by
the coast of Holland ; on the east by part of the pro-
vince of Utrecht, and by Amstellandj on the north
by part of the river Y, along the course of the dyke
that goes from Haerlem to Amsterdam, and by the
shallows and washes as far as Beverwic; and on the
south, by a line drawn from Montfort through Oii-
dewater arMl Gouda to the Hague : it has its name of
Rhineland from tlie middle branch of the Rhine run-
ning through it. All the inhabitants of this district
are obliged by law, agreed to among themselves, to
provide for the maintenance and reparation of the
dykes, sluices, and canals within the district ; and they
have a council which meets every Saturday at the

Divisions.

South
Holland.

Rhineland,

Rhineland House, in Leyden. This council is com- Holland,
posed of the Dyke-graaf, and seven assistants, called >— ^"^
Heemraden. There are several islands belonging to isianj.
South Holland: The island of Voornlees, between, the
mouths of the river Maese ; Briel is the capital : This
island, along with the small adjoining islands of Goree,
and Overslackee, form the territory called Voornland,
which was anciently part of Zealand. The isle of
Ruggonhill, to the east of that of Voorn, of which Wil.
liamstadt is the principal town, together with the isle
of Finard, formerly belonged to Brabant.

North Holland is divided from South Holland by North Hol-
the river Y. The principal towns in it are Saardam, land.
Edam, Monikendam, Alcmaer, and Hoorn. Across the
mouth of the Zuyder Zee lies a row of islands, belong-
ing to North Holland. The Texel island is separated Texel.
from the North Cape of North Holland by a very nar-
row channel ; it is about eight miles long and five
broad ; it is defended from the sea by sand hills and
strong banks ; there are several villages in it, and a
large town on the east side, called Burgh, which enjoys
the privileges of a city. As this island lies at the
mouth of the Zuyder Zee, and commands the only pas-
sage to Amsterdam, the States have built a strong for-
tress on it, in which a considerable garrison is always
kept. The island of Vlieland lies towards the north-
east of the Texel ; it is about nine miles long, and two
broad ; it has only two small villages ; and is chiefly
remarkable for the great quantity of muscles found on
it. The island of Schclling lies to the north-east of
Vlieland ; and is about 10 miles long, and three broad;
there are five villages on it. These islands, together
with several large sand-banks, break the rage of the
ocean, and form two good harbours, or rather road-
steds, at the Texel and the Vlie; the first being a
noted station for ships bound to the south, and tlie
other for those bound to the north. The Wierengen,
thus called from the great quantity of sea- weed, named
in Dutch, as in Scotch, fVier, is a number of little
islands, which lie more to the south, on the coast of
North Holland ; the principal of them is five miles
long, and two broad, and contains several villages.

The name of Holland, (the hollow land,) sufficiently Pace of tlie
indicates the nature of the country. The level of a country,
great part of it is, indeed, below the level of the sea,
which is kept out only by means of dykes, or natural
sand banks. In many parts, the dyke, or mound, is 30 ^2g^^^ ^a
feet above the adjoining land; the width at top is dykes.
enough to permit the passage of two carriages ; and
there is a sort of imperfect road along it. In its de-
scent, the breadth increases so much, that it is not very
difficult to walk down either side. On the land side,
it is strengthened by stone and timber, and covered by
earth and grass ; towards the sea, somewhat above, and
considerably below water-mark, a strong matting of

HOLLAND.

77

I tks "UW* '*'<'''* csnTiiur away the sur«

jotAamouad. Thii kind of dfftnpw appears to

have bMB diacoverctl in the 1 7th eoitanr; for Sir
WQliam Tample, in bi« oiMefratkas on tne Nether.
, curauv lajri, it was lately found out. This
ig M hrld to the shore by bandages of twisted
§agt ruBBing horiaoolalJy, at the distanrr of three cu-
ter yards frara each other, and staked to the ground
fay straoc wooden fima. As this matting is worn by
•very tM&, a sarrar of it is ftvqtteotly made. Farther
in tikt sea, it is hald down bv stones. Above, there
are pasta at ercty 40 yards, wnida arc namfacrad, that
the Spat aaqr be exactly dtacribed where rapatrs are
neeeaaary. The Jntpeat, for the maintenance of these
banks, amoimie la neariy as orach aa the land-ta». Sir
Willism TsBple aaerta, that these dykes csoploy ao-
nually mpn nsB than aU the com of the province of
Holland eoold maintain In the tiaae of Oe Witt, the
making of ene rood's length of sc*.dvke soaetimes cost
600 guilders. Besides nase ae^dykca, there are other
dykM to keep out the waters of the rivers. In the
tms efDe U itt, the annual charges of the district of
*" ' * ttitTimih abont 8O0O osorgens, and

■udi eaaHBoaicBliaa with the sea. nor with
> but only with standing waters, paid aa aemWe
lod inland rharasa, at least two gnilikn fir
s for 3rawku| out of the

BWmgOHt

b}r niilU each acre 90 rtavers, and towarda foe(>pafllM,
highwayi, and ditciMs, at lantt 90 stivers more. The
kaoka or dykes aaar Madanblidt. in North Holland.
n«r the Zaydsr Zee^ arestrangw, bvaader, and higher,
thaBaMratneniatlieeanBtry: for thew being noMiing
tohndtthertoianacerihe s« tnm thaMbads i
ffrtnltim and Vfialanl t» «ya sfasrt, the water bcMa
me* tmnamif wfon h what Ike nankiilj winda hlov,
andatqwingLtidastheaaa litea saoMtiaMa as k^ aa
•ke dykes, and woald «*eB ewatfltfw and break than
dowa. did not the iahehiiiala stop as fury by laying
aais orav tka d^kaa, wkieb prtasnt thcrn in a tampoit.
MlMnevar tke water ef tha sea, or the tivcr^ breaks
over apoa the lands, they are drHaad by maaaa of
wii^mill» of which there are immtase aaaiben for
this ptuaatss. Fran what has bean elraad/ taicU it awy
wellke waagiaarl, that the geneial foee af the
is that of a bge monk that kes been ikaiaiJ.
aals, and evaa tke aa^ laakiqg pale and •••■ d
od by amd ; vet the eye ia a
and daligklaif by the giwea, ,
while the graat riteca, and tke'

' " ( aot anly to i
md ahinst la

ef vamab evatywhora

to«i^ bat to evaiy rBhgik

f Man
BiisM. The prtecipal rivara'ia Hallaad arc^ tke

When we come to trat of tke
ef ikia province, the cknqgas in tke eoHTse of ^1
so for aa they are oomMcted with it. will be
at pnaaat. wc akall esniae oufBslves to ita p
in Hailid. Acc«edii« to soaae g i i^phaw. the
narthera moalk of ikia river mast be aoagkt ia tke
Leek, wkick joias tke eMsoiy of tke Mease, bati

Dart aad BeMardaai: aecafdiag to etketa, it

thnogh Lrydi, wkate it divides itself into two eaaab,
one of wkick rans iaio tke kdw of Haerlcm. and tke
etkrr lews itself, four nilaa beyond Lejdcn. in the
Mad hilU between Cetwyk ea the Rhine, an*! Catwyk
ea tke saa, when waa anciaaliy tke moolh bv whidi it

litaalfiatolkeoctsn. The Leak, if it be not the
be r^aided as OMlkrr river in
4

Holland ; its course has been already mentioneJ. There HoUud.
is another small branch of the Rhine called the \'aert, """'V"^
or Vecht, which fall* into the Zuyder Zee at Muyden,
about eij(fat miles to the east of Amsterdam. The little
Y««el falls into the Maes, a short way to the eist of Rot-
terdam. The Maes, pasnng before Gorcum, runs to
Dort, where it divides itsdf into two Urge brsnches,
forming sn island called Yiiselmomle. The most north-
em branch runs to Rotterdam ; it is called the New
Maes, to distinguish it from the southern branch, which
is called the Old Maes. They reunite a little before
they reach \'lardingen, and enter the ocean, by a wide
mouth, a little below Briel. The Amstel is not pro-
perly a river, but rather a collection of waters from the
Drecht, the .Miert, and other rivulets, the waters of
which are swelled by their communication with lakes
and rivers, by mearu of caiuls. The V, called by some
a river, is mure properly a branch of the Zuyder Zee,
from which it begins, at a sand bank called the Pam-
pus. Its dtannel h«« is half a mile broad, wliicli
breadth it continues to Amsterdam, but grows soon af-
terwards twice as broad. It receives the waters front
the lake of Haerlera by a large canal, called the Sparen,
and fram aeveral lakes in North Hollsnd. It after-
warda passee northwards to Beverwyk, without dis-
ekarging itself i^n into the sea.

From the Iqyva of Haerlcm, the great lake called the Hsnfem
Hacrlcsa Meet, or Sea of Haerlem, derives its name. It >!<«,.
is situated between Hserlcm, Amsterdam, and Leyden ;
and i* formed by the waters of several rivulet*, and of
tke sea, with which, as has just been noticed, it lias a
licatioii by means of the Y, which enters it by
f, strongly bailt with brick>work. From its
aicatioa wkk tke aae. the waters of the Meer
farackisk. There are cmals from its several gulfs
to the cities of Amsterdam, Leyden, and Haerlem On
the eaat side, there is a gulf or branch called the New
Mcer, (Vooi wkick a oanal leads to the suburbs of Am-
•tefdan. Here there is a dyke, over which loade<l
•re carried, by means of a wheel and rollers, into
On the north of the lake there is ano-
wbere there is a sluice, which opens aiul
!bf tke weight of the water. This is the
aluica by whidi the lake communicates witlt the Y. tit
one plaoi, the iteck of lawl which separates the I '.
Moar ead tke Y is so narrow, that a oanal c»< <
dnwD Ikroegh it. Betk tkeae watets tiave gainni cun •
athnililjr en tkeir r imi rtiva skcwe, and if united would
be iriwititli At tke aenowwt pert, the neck of land
f MiiiiH aft»a».wa»lr andaiMiaiiy totkc thickness of about
40 foeC Ob l|ie aeatk aad aoatb-weat, Haerlem .Macr
eoaaanoicalH witk aeveral aaall braacfacs of the Rhine,
one of which oames fkem Leyden. The Haerlem lake
ia about Jtf miles Iun<r. at»l nine bread ; and a* ground
ia vary dear and ^ I lulUnd, it hv. ut\cn bc«u

ataaaasd to drain r. ...: Uic draining of it would pro-
Dably be productive of great mischief, for it receives
the waters when the vioErtit north winds drive them
frara the Canaan Ocean into the Zuyder Zee and the
Y ; wherras if, by the draiiiiog of the lake, they were
coofined within the bank* of the Y, thecity of Am»ter-
dan would be in great danger of being overawed.
Besides this, the Uke of Heanen aCords a vast quanti-
ty of fish, and the convenicncy of navigation not only
to the adjoining villages, but also to Levden, Haerlem,
and Amstrnlam. Thiere are some small lakes in North
Holland, but none descrvmg of particular notice.

The dimate of HoUattd is humid, cold, njid general, qj,
ly HOwholeNOW ; the winters arc sharp and very long,

gair. «

itodri

78

HOLLAND.

HaUiuMl.

Soil.

Progressive
geography

the rivers being generally rendered unnavigable by the
ice for a considerable length of time. In the spring,
which is very short, and by no means agreeable, the
sharp cold winds frequently blast the blossoms of the
fruit trees. The summers are not unfrequently very
hot. The climate is also disagreeable and unwhole-
some, from sudden and extreme changes of tempera-
ture. The east wind generally blows nearly the whole
of the winter, and is extremely fierce ; but it serves to
drive away the fogs, with which this country is dread-
fully plagued. The moisture of the air is such, espe-
cially about Leyden, that all metals are apt to rust, and
even the wood to mould. The climate about WiUiam-
stadt is particularly unwholesome, from the extreme
flatness and marshiness of the ground ; whereas, about
Naerden, where the country is high and sandy, the air
is by no means bad. The soil of Holland is in gene-
ral uncommonly rich, being in fact alluvial, and con-
sisting of deep fat loam ; in some parts, however, it
consists of a barren sand. The soil of North Holland,
especially in the drained land called the Bemster, is
particularly rich. The country near the village of
Schagen is reckoned to possess the richest soil in Eu-
rope. Land is sold here at double the rate of any other
in Holland, there having been trees upon it, one of
■which, upwards of a century ago, yielded the owner
as much fruit in one year as brought him £iO ster-
ling ; and a sheep, bred here, was sold, about the same
time, for the same sum.

The progressive geography of Holland is so interest-
ing and important, that we have no doubt our readers
of the Zuy- ^yjjj pardon us for dwelling on it pretty fully and mi-
dst cee. nutely. It naturally divides itself into what respects
the formation or extension of the Zuyder Zee, the al-
teration in the course, and the diminution of the size
of the Rhine, so far as it is connected with Holland,
and the changes which the breaking in, or draining off,
of the sea has produced in different parts of this pro-
vince.

From the name of West Friesland, which is given to
North Holland, it is highly probable that part, at least
of this division of the province of Holland, was for-
merly united to East Friesland. How much of it be-
longed to the Frisia Occidentalis of the ancients is
not accurately known : some geographers are of opi-
nion, that only that part to the north-east, in which
Hoorn, Enchuyzen, and Medenblic are situated, was
the ancient Frisia Occidentalis. From the description
■of Tacitus, it is evident that, in his time, no other dis-
tinction was known but that of greater or lesser Fri-
sons ; and that distinction arose entirely from the num-
ber of the forces which each could respectively bring
into the field. He informs us, that among the Frisons
were great lakes, evidently implying that they were of
fresh water ; and this is made yet plainer by the ex-
pression ambituttque immensos lacus, which prove* that
these lakes were inhabited round by these nations.
Hence it is probable that the more inland part of
what is now the Zuyder Zee, was one of the lakes
mentioned by Tacitus, between which and the Texel
and VI ie islands, there lay anciently a large tract
of land. This opinion is strengthened by several cir-
cumstances. These islands lie still in a contiguous
lincj and Kke the broken remains of a continued co?.st.
The sea here, too, is remarkably shallow, and the
santls through the whoje extent very flat. From the
inspection of the accurate maps of the ancient and mid-
dle geography of Gaul, by D'Anville, it will be seen
that part of the present site of tlie Zuyder Zee was oc-

cupied by a considerable inland lake called Flevo.
This lay towards the southern part of the present Zuy-
der Zee. The question then is. By what means, and
at what period, were the northern part of the Zuyder
Zee formed, and tlie communication between this Sea
and the ocean opened, or at least rendered so wide as it
is at present .' From the lake of Flevo ran a river of the
same name into the ocean. Formerly the Rhine divided
itself into two grand branches at Burginasium, the pre-
sent Schenck, about a miles north-west of the Colonia
Trajana, now an inconsiderable hamlet, called Coin, near
Cleves. The southern branch joined the Meuse at
the town of Meusa, while the northern passed by Ley-
den into the ocean. From this branch Dnisus formed
a canal, bearing bis name, which originally joined the
Hhine to the Y'ssel, a river which flowed into the lake
Flevo. This canal being neglected, the Rhine joined
the Yssel with such force that their waters increased
the lake of Flevo to a great extent, by which means it
was carried forward to the ocean by a wide gulf, in-
stead of having a communication with it only by meana
of the river Flevo. It is probable, also, that the en-
trance of this river into the ocean was much widened
by the force of the waves ; for, at present, the violent
rage of the waves breaking in towards the mouth of
the Zuyder Zee, threatens the parts of North Holland
about Medenblick and Enchuysen, braving it over
the highest and strongest dykes of the province upon
every high tide and storm at north-west. The exact
period when the lake Flevo was extended into the Zuy-
der Zee is not positively known ; indeed it is proba-
ble that the increase took place at dift'erent periods.
We are informed by an old Dutch chronicle, published
by Vossius, that the increase on the south side, by the
breaking in of the inlet to the Texel, took place about
the year 1170; others say it was so late as the year
1 400. The increase of the lake on its northern side
was probably at an earlier period, and also gradual. It
certainly was about the year 1400 that the river Y be-
came navigable to Amsterdam by large vessels.

In our account of the progressive geography of the
Zuyder Zee, we have partly noticed the changes which
have taken place in the course of the Rhine. At the
same time that the lake Flevo gained its increase, the
northern branch of this river was weakened by the di-
vision of its waters ; and even the canal of Drusus was
afterwards almost obliterated by the deposition of mud
in a low country. The Rhine seems to have been far-
ther divided and weakened by a canal cut by Civilis,
which, according to Cluverius, is the present Leek ;
though Pinkerton thinks the deviation of the Rhine into
the Leek was the work of natural causes. The same
author regards the Leek, which joins the estuary of the
Meuse between Dort and Rotterdam as the northern
mouth of the Rhine ; which, according to him, the
Waal continues to be the southern, both being lost in
a comparatively small stream, the Meuse. According
to other geographers, what falls into the sea near Cat-
wyk is not the Rhine, but a canal bearing the name
of that river. In the sea at low tides, are to be seen,
near this village, the foundations of an ancient Roman
castle, that commanded the mouths of the Rhine. The
Maese, running by Dort and Rotterdam, fell, as it
now does, into the sea, at Briel, with a powerful flow of
water ; but the sands, which are gathered for three or
four leagues upon this coast, having obstructed the exit
of the river, have caused or increased those inunda-
tions, out of which so many islands have been recover-
ed, and of which that part of South Holland is so much

Holland

Progcessive
geography
of the Zuy-
der Zee.

Of the
Rhine.

Of the

Maese.

HOLLAND.

79

TowMdt the tunattiaa ot them idtait,
the Scbeldt Mm* aho to bare eontributed. Thi* ri>
ver anciestly formed m mere Delta; with four or fire
■maU idhmdaL At'what time the iirupdotu uf thit rirer
look plaoe, by which the islmid* at Zcatand, and the
I of tboee of Midland, wan fSormed, u not

■ccanldT kaown. Pmkerton i« at ofoaan that dMy
iMMOed at tbe time that the Godwm mnda aniae:
•mr autfarm amicn tbam to violent tiiiimli in the

Man«60and 117a A Zeolawdic dheuoickr, q—tedb^
Chvefii, lay*, that the i>laiiiU of Zedawt wtn C

t tnafwau in ikr jtm 9S*;
r, that tkcae gimH '

ckmires, that Sir William Temple says it is the plea- Ho
santcst summer landscape he ever saw. There ^ere '""^
no fewer than thirty mills employed to drain the
Beenister.

We ooae now to the consideration of the agriculture,
6*hrries, man«fiMtures, and commerce of the prorincc
of Holland. The agriculture of such a country, where
the sot] and dinate are so very aooiat, cannot be ex-
pected to be conaidanble, or to present m.-my in»trtic-
tire or intereating topics : in some respects, however,
it dcaerrea notice, particularly in what rrf;ards the
of North Holland, and most espedidly uf the

in the Momphj of Hol>
tte Znjrikr Z«t A-

oriiMi

■HDsn. knd. hMiteilw il^ywnit af

ia tfae year
MSi, to tiM ijudh 11 of Dart, is the
Aim. D<jrt is th« caqpitil oT a bailiwii^ aT tW
la I4C1, tilia teilisrick «« n^e an

the waters up the
;tha)r

fair a violent tMaaaat. whicb 4i»mm
Maaar muk tke Maiaiina witli sadi

•f kod, with 70 villaM» awl imVOOO awpli ; •

Port aaa fcabaat wa» alaa fuiii, Tka

) a fsrij Of I tW river

' is aav awlWwad up bjt the rtiawaal of

The iab oT lnnliil, «i wkick WiB«.

ibf fbaaeaCgvanaaetia*: it

wa»rec«»«i«ds«Ia«eas tbe yaar 1654 Narr^Miiatka

capital of a diatrict cailad Gotland: it kaa i^oa Ae

Z«]rdarXs«,l9aalaBtailMaMiarAaHaM^ia,«id 1«

to the BottH of UttsdW. TkaoM tasra. wWdi'aload

aaere to the aaa*, was MraHawad ap b^ iIm aaa^ TIkr

'faint are «il to ba

flieptaaaat taara.

•rta ibaiaiil knjt in North Hoikad

>-«thH«i. tbercaadKof dMZvw. tbe

^ tbe Wonooar. ami fchWiaar. Tbe Krpe wm firat

diainad aad iiiii iiyl mi bjr bviu, \m WiUiaai Lord
af Bebaigsa. aai aaaaiad by Hiaajw fcacaaia ISM;
bM Ibe aaa brake Atai iaan ia 1570. AAar tbb it
«aa dtainad ^pia. aad saaarai )gj a bmIo of ptadi.
ffioM beigbt aM balk, pnaf Maiaal aH atMin of tka
aaa; aMlll ia aaw. tta al tbe aKhar dr^a

ZvMk ««7 fhiitfiil aaO. Tha aaia* aMda bv (be waa

ayoA hit

'^*'*' frss

•wt ap^dasiit

*«a ♦ to 8 raiiVaatf. and fa Joined ta tbe Ami
a bridge at tbe aaalb and. Panaor ia dboal «

kNig,Mdabar«abr«Ma. Tha BaHdadr aaMaiw 7090
•<:'*• baaidee tba kiyth waya, Hkm, aad raiiA arhiob
wm auad and woas h in sevral plaaaa. It ties betwoan
rwmm and Edam, aisd was a Iska till the jrcsr iCW,
▼hen, after fear vcan libaai, and «a« oipaaee, (the
banks, by whieblliavawr tbiwwn aa»by tbemilU was
cooAnctl, having batn braken, alker the work waa katf
dene,) H waa aiadt dry Uad ; and ia aaw so plaaWd
with gaidaDs, archarda, iwa of trata> aad thMilei».

9

kia provuice. few laacb are held in 6ef, or by ho- Apwot-
maae, ana tba women brine very fruitful of children, *"^
■Ml tba RMn ganmlly dividing their landed property
aaMi^ tbam, aalaley are for tne roost part smaJI. The
6nns aia aim small : the (ana houses are neat, shel-
t«nd and eoaeaalad by small dusters of trees, and t^
dadad tqgalber with their gardens and orchards, in a
par4act graon feaeak Tbe fiekls are separated from tIddUi
each other, aad ftam the nad, neither by hedges or
walls, but by deep dildMa filled with water, over wliicb
aw Idd sbmU bridgea, that may be opened in the
middle by a sort of trap door, rsiiaed and loiked to a
foat. ta pmeaal tba intiaaian of atraqgcrs. Tbe roads
m nMny pbcea are made on tbe dike of the canal, the
ielda baii^ fKn|unitly between five and six feet below
llw level of the road ; but tite coromunicatioo between
■aat of Ibe tern basMm and tba vjIImm and le«a%
andaWa betaaen tba aevarai paMa if ne tame &raw

entirvly by maaaa of saadl mnals. The moat Baidi.

blic raada in Holland etc tlMise in tbe
of t^ Hague. Tba mad ftom thia pfaKe to
iapaiatad aat by tbe Dalcb aa aa object of ■
tasMaiyii: tM length of this avenue, for
i* em baldly ba mfiad a road, b nearly two milaa, and
its hrsadib mdher aaort thai fO paces: it is a parCiBlly
atraifbt Kne, m that tbe entrance of the road eoaft-
aaasda a view of tbe whole ; and the church of Scba-
voKag, a picturoanae objrct, terminates the prospect.
It ia shaded on aaoi side oy beadMa^ liaaea, and oak*,
of aa aatoniabiag growth, whicb are so cloMly and
dkUfblly pkmtad. that they Conn to appearance an ioa-
From Drlf\ to the lla|rue, the road ia
It L of •uffit-irnt breadth to ad-

adTtoar <r i>a ciriagas ahii aa, atadcd on both aidai
by lefty aova af aan^ ksat in aMailant repair, and ao
lr*d, ibat net <ba laiat iwqaality of groai>d ia ta be

FujrfKf.

Tharr i* very little haid under tillage ia the pro- TiHsfr.
viam of HulUnd. as may be easily tnagined from the
natare of tba soil aad climate t and what ia tmder til-

Sia almaa eadaaivdy eoniaed to .South Hdlaad.
cram prmdpallv cakivatad are wheat, niaddcr,
lubauia^ anapk flax, clover, 4ce. Tbe eenntry adyaoeat
<e Owtamnila.aot 6r ftam the a>owtb of the Marse, is
makaaad to preihsm tbe beat wbcat. m weli aa tbe whrst
by aaaelia grass in South Hollasid. Madder of moat as- ,^^j^
~ quality, naturally as well as praparad, in a moat
r aamier, bm lang been a piadaedve and fa-
ia Mollaad. Tobacco ia net M cstrmivvly
y coltsvaled m farawvly. rvaap aoanancs uamM^
remarkably well, tbe depth aad moiature of ibe aoil
being admimMy adapted to the luxuriant in«wtb af
this plant. Oadewater, about leven nnlr'> tn tdr aomfa
of Woerden, upoe the leaser Yssel, in ."^ ^^nd,

ia aalcd iSgr good haap pcudaced on its i.^... '. .^ix i» pj,^
nal only ftr tba pa^am of inmiifintiin^ bat

awoacrsai
or carelUly

80

HOLLAND.

Mollaiid.

PiiHures.
Milk.

Butter.

Cheese-

Cattle.

"Horses and
kheep.

Kees.
Wax.

also for ita seed, tlimigh some of the oilier provinces in
' the NetherlamU are more remarkable for this crop than
Holland. The same remark applies to clover.

The pastures of Holland, especially, as has been al-
ready remarked, of North Holland, are perhaps unri-
valled for the abundance and luxuriance of the grass
they prwlnce. From it they obtain milk, cheese, and
butter, all of excellent quality. Mrs Radcliflfe remarks,
that on her way from Hclvoetsluys to Rotterdam, she
passed now and then a waggon filled with large brass
jugs, bright as new gold ; in these vessels, which have
short narrow necks, covered with a wootlen stopper,
milk is brought from the field, throughout Holland.
It is always carried to the towns in light waggons or
carts, drawn frequently by horses as sleek and well-
conditioned as those in our best coaches. The butter
of Holland is of a very superior quality : the greater
part of it is salted and barrelled for exportation ; Bee-
nister is noted for the excellence of this article. There
are several kinds of cheese made in Holland, some of
which are rich and highly esteemed, and some, made
from milk, which has previously supplied the butter,
of course very inferior in quality. Leyden, Gouda,
Edam, Gravesande, and Hoorn, are famous for their
cheese : from the last place, vast quantities both of
cheese and butter are exported to Spain, Portugal, and
other countries, especially during their annual fair in
the month of May. The cheese made in Holland is of
two sorts, red and white ; the red is much esteemed,
and somewhat resembles the Parmasan ; it is made into
large and small shapes ; the former weighs from 1 8 to
'20, and the latter from 6 to 8 libs : the white cheeses
weigh from 6 to 7, and the richest kinds are excellent
as toasting cheeses. Besides the common Dutch
cheeses, there are some called Kantcrkaas ; these are of
various sorts, the principal of which are the green
cheeses, the white of Leyden, the cummin cheese of
Leyden, and the round cheese. In North Holland,
about 18 millions of pounds of cheese were sold in the
year 1801 : and at Gouda, in 1803, about two millions
were sold. The cattle which produce such large quan-
tities of excellent butter and cheese, are not indigenous,
but for the most part are of the Holstein or Danish
breed. In the vicinity of Hoorn they have a consider-
able trade in Danish cattle, which are imported lean,
and fattened in the rich pastures round this place, and
then driven to the other pai-ts of Holland. The utmost
attention is every where paid to the warmth and clean-
liness of the milch cows, so that even in summer the
animals appear in the meadows clothed with ludicrous
care. The horses are principally from England or
Flanders. The number of horned cattle in Holland,
in the year 1804., amounted to 902,526, of which
252,394 were under two years of age. At that time,
it was generally believed that there had been a great
decrease in the number of horses, sheep, and swine.
The ancient race of sheep indigenous to the country,
have long been improved by the introduction of foreign
breeds ; but the soil and climate of Holland are not
favourable to this animal : very little wool is exported,
what is obtained from the sheep being chiefly consumed
in the manufactures of the country. In some parts of
Holland, bees are an object of much attention to the
farmer, chiefly on account of the wax which they af-
ford. A vast quantity of this article is annually gather-
ed ; and the bleaching of it forms a considerable branch
of industry among the poorer classes : a great deal of
white wax was formerly exported to Spain. In con-
nection with the agriculture of Holland, its horticul-

ture must not be passed over : the mode of laying out Holland.
the gardens is still very ungraceful and artificial ; the ^— y~~-'
trees are bent and cut into a thousand fantastic shapes, _ ,
and the flower-ljeds are of every fonn that can displease
and disgust the eye of taste. There are generally
abundance of stagnatetl canals, with puerile bridges
thrown over them. But setting aside these points of
inferiority, the people of Holland in several respects
arc excellent horticulturists, especially in what regards
the culture and improvement of the most beautiful
flowers. The rage for flowers, especially tulips, is not Tulips,
nearly so great or general at present as it was formerly.
There is to be seen in the registers of Alcmaer, the re-
cord of a circumstance which deserves to be mentioned :
In the year 1637, there were sold publicly in this city,
one hundred and twenty tulips, for 90,000 guilders :
one of these flowers, called the Admiral of Encbuysen,
with its root and offsets, was sold for 5200 guilders ;
two others, called Brabanters, for 3800 guilders ; and
one named the Viceroy sold for 4203 guilders. Not
only the name and price of these flowers, but also their
weight, are particularly set down in the registers of
this city. The passion of paying exorbitant prices for
flowers at length came to such a height in Holland,
that the States were obliged to put a stop to it by se-
vere penalties ; many gentlemen having been ruined
by that passion. The fruit of Holland, though abun-
dant, is seldom of good quality ; the humidity of the
climate, as well as its rapid growth, from the richness
of the soil, rendering it insipid.

The fisheries of Holland consist of those which are Fisheries;
carried on near the coasts, and those which are carried
on at a distance. The shores abound with excellent
fish, particularly turbot and soals ; but for other fish,
in consequence of the shallowness of the sea near the
coast, the fishei-men are generally obliged to go to the
distance of more than five miles. The village of Sche-
veling is particularly remarkable for the number of
fishermen whom it contains ; they are distinguished
by their ruddy countenances and athletic limbs. The
principal foreign fishery of Holland, formerly was that
of herrings : it was carried on from the ports of Dort,
Rotterdam, Delft, Schiedam, Briel, Enchuysen, &c.
The time of departure for the fishery was about the
24th of June. The cod fishery, whicli is still carried
on to a considerable extent, commences in October,
and ends in April. It is carried on upon the Dogger
Bank ; what is caught serves not only for the con-
sumption of Holland, but forms one of its chief ex-
ports. The city of London consumes immense quanti-
ties of cod, caught by the Dutch. The whale-fishery
was formerly vested in a company, called the Northern
Company : it afterwards became open and free ; but,
like all the other branches of the fisheries and com-
merce of Holland, was destroyed by the revolutionary
wars, and has not yet revived. It was chiefly carried
on upon the coasts of Nova Zembla, as far as Davis
Straits, and upon those of Spitzbergen, Greenland, &c.
The vessels engaged in this fishery, during its flourish-
ing state, were about 300 in number.

The chief manufactures of Holland are linens, (many Manufac-
of which, however, are made in Silesia) pottery and tares,
painted tiles, woollen cloth, leather, wax, snuff, sugar,
starch, paper, &c. At Haerlem, there are coHsiderable
manufactures for the fabrication of fine linen cloths. Linen,
dimity, satins, &c. which, though they have fallen off"
considerably, in consequence of the war, and the mea-
sures of Bonaparte, still give employment to a num-
ber of workmen, and carry on a profitable trade with

HOLLAND.

81

KaiWa

^*0m^ BniMDt and Gtntmnj. Th* blmwhwin at Hwrlem

• ~ have toBK been fainoas for ibe cMiaite whiteness

>l(«;t>cha. which thejr give U> linen cloth*, Utife qtMntitie* of

which M« aanualhr brought hither fiMm nil parts of the

Nit^wl^Qili and Gemuaj to naJLergo thia operation ;

and faafiw* the war between HgJiMiil anA BrilMa, and

the inyravemcntt made in th* proe— <# Uncbing,

bjr acana of the oxjmiUHtic ac^ miich «w am from

Ireland and Scatlmd. The principal inhabitanta of

AnManlaaa and other ne^^hbouroy plaoea, also send

their linen to be waabad aad hlwpltfd at Haeriem.

The aaperior whjtwwn of the hlaacWiaa ot thi* town

1* attribMtetl to lo^ne pociiliar quality ia tha watar of

^gg^ ^ l*kc of Uacrtcni. Some woollen do*b ia maoulae-

^a,^^ lured at Delft, and othar plaaa*. but htyima ia the

•MO. priodnal ««at of this ImmA of wwfctaw ; bora iaa

larft ouiklti^ fijr tmmktutg and timtitg tbo

Tbu oao^Ciatiira ia at ffftati m • tiwy daavai

•idfaoanuiijr ago, Umm wn — aa^ >ai» ^y lii

of 100,000 pmcm: and owtajr

warkmaa wara mnftof^i- Tt«»

in all Hwilaad, at the htfinmim mt the ISlh catwT,
anuuntrd to about HOOJOOO mtem at hfOMl doth.

aetve*. baiac^ «iift. Ice. whawas ia the year 18M, tbor
did nut cacrni -jo noo ptaoo* : and io IWM, tiM whole
nanufaotur' anowt U 400UQ0O ell* of dotb.

TLe cflccu - : — . tlocajr veto stiifciaiiiy cvinoad at
Laisdca, «be pnynlatiwi of vbiob tai tnm 00^000 to
90,000. TbciiaMifiictwwaf Ibkdiydonat
even in tbair nost iooriabinc «awlili«l, to hMPO
b the fincnoas of tJi»ir atlidatk iholwMof
but their coaiaa dot^ tmmti a
nent. anU the Eaat and Weat Mia
them rtady naaribtta in iJhr atb« oaaMcb af llbe olabo.
At the cDOHMrco of HoUnd dadaod; tiMt of Britain
inoenaad. apd dif t^mttmrnmni YiifciMii aiiiiltod
tbapitifa;iiiiiof liffaiaf i>afaia<i«Miffcnno
MlkM JBlial. tfa« the DnnA
h fW 4ipthair ioHMt aoopart Englirii doiha in

ftqiwiimw will II of tbair own

wooOen iradp tf Loydeo abofWiivaAMl^

the c«ttinei|t, from iba oMaMiitaMBt ct

logna to xarioM paita of Ciiwaiiji and tba Natbar^

laadk wkick than oaaaad to draw anjr

•upplka fnoai Lufdm. In the year IMS. tbo

far the ii>tariari«a4p«rn>art tatj^iw^of liiliii 1.

on tbo »ato o/lby ».wiPm wIi— i, ■ i m whieh it

apfwanthat nii|iii wotban awbingtohnniuii tbo

Dotdi wool, by tbo intradnariaa aT Marioo^baep. and

to revive tba wooUan ■MMfttlnrat of Leydan. The

pendentlj of thoae whidi have pradiicad a general de< HoIUqd-
cay of wannfartiiraa and romaaarrr in HoUiLnd, are the ' - • '-
inMoenaa qpMMlitiea of poroalain which, for a century
and a half, ha«e been imported in Europe t'rom C^hina ;
and the rival manuf.tctures which, during that time,
have been oMaMiohod in Germany and England. The
aarthcn wara «f fitalordshiie waa aome yeara ago ao
amah appwwod of in Holland, that the statca gaoml,
in aadar to protect tha nanufiKtunars of Delft from ab-
■olaNa rain, were obliaad to lay duties on ita inportatian
into th* lapublic, wbicb were ao aevera a* to anutunt
almoat to an entire prohibition. Glass, especially riaaa GIsm.
tojN^ are nada in several parts of Holland. The (^aaa-
bmiie in Bottardaaa waa loraieriy daamed tba beat in
tki SerflB PrMriMea. It made a wwabar of alaM top
and anaaaalled bowla, which ware oapaatad to ipdia,
finr cbioa ware, and oliiar ariantal com*
tba nauranal nnaetiaa at amokiag pj.^
■ay nannniy no aitppoaaa nac

ia a naiad ■aaaftrtnw of thaat at Sauda ; tfaay

oeat, and a very enlenaioa trade of

atL They make mn in the nai^bour-

boad «f thia city a vaat quantity of bnelca and hlaa, the

kitar ptinonatiy what are called Dntcb tBae. At E»>
rlinwai, Mit faro«||bt ftom Brittany ia aefinad.
Taa bwauaa aaid diatiUatMa ia HoUmmI ai»

Bivvaisi

DaM. Oanda. aad Muydan are ^^ dutak.
fcr tbdr beer. The boar made "**■

J an

keraay-

maaaUaaturers of thia eiqr tr* CSivUMi fv

beantf. and excellent q^4i|)r4fliMk

n^TM; audi ftaai a bmimi in tbo

tb^L^badrMfiiiiltfcgaldan

tl>« Urda dalb. Tbia rrport ah^ givaa aonM fa».

ft^DtJlijpi raanf lim ot»ar brancbaa of wnallM — wi-

Min jp ItollaniL Ba0mg Aim. CmHy imported

arm £pgla»i. aaama to have been omdo at Amator.

day i ^ bbailtrti of Laytlan are mentioned as of ai.

ccOcat mnUttft and tba ailrcr |iba of benonr aaama to

have be«t cpnftnpd en the caad« Ml <f riml d^.

Delft wm fcfV'(j IbnHMt kr ila ■mnufarfia of
rarthcii ware, which rivalled the purtalaht of CbbM,
and was grneralhr sought aAar and aateimiJ thraugb.
out Europe, for faa deianee and beamy. In the year
1800. there were tcarcdy MO piTaini M^j^rcd m the
pottarie« of this place; wharoaa. In iWr maat Caurish-
uw days, thrr gave suhiistiuca ta aawaida of 10,000.
The prindpal oaaaaa af tUa iilnr*ha dacay, iode.

VOL. zj. raar L

1 in that place and the mi-

, ,. In tha IMfa oenturv. dw toam of

Gonda had IM brawariaa, Aom which Zealand and a
gnat part of Flamlam wear fbraiahed with bear. In
1510, they Iwd daanaaad to 159; in the year 1598.
tlMra wert IM : in liM, there wara l«6: and in the
year U09. tbeso war* only twa Tbaae, howawar.
■aka bear of axodlant qaality ; imiiatiag London
pamr w^ Idarabli mwi UT, howwrnr/k h 4niA
oat af tha oaak, it ia vary infinior ; butallcr it haa baan
ia bnltlaa tar aaaw lima^ ita taste ia nearly a* a«i«*a-
UaMLaMdan hottladnartar, ftom wMch it ia diOcult
laditfiMaJabk. Mwdan is ad^ fcr ooad boar caU
lad FVadih phado. Tba iBdilldiaa of vdant spivita
iaihaaala I laiill itiiai whkh bm hirra—i ia Hd.
Jaad. la 177S, them ware at Brhwdam. paideulariy
•atai Car iu Geneva. 190 diatillrriaa. Iq ti^ yam
Vtm. MO, aad fa tbo whala nianaaa af Holiaad 400 ;
aadi ^ ifaM dialiiMm yidM waadhr ««M ankara
offia. Tba whrii didilawii of tha aaaoa paoaincm
waaU Hodaaa aMaaOy ;\aifiH aakam ; but the
waat ap pain mmdm* it neoaaaaiy to aadaaa this quaa-
rilr anathiad. whiah harm 1.400,000 wikcrs. of
walah %t6jQM are atMamad in the country, and the

ir of sawinR mill* in Hd- Saeiaf
lartr hi tha ricinil* of Uotterdam. They «^^
tnlbar plamii^ djicta. the mall geaerally
naiag ham the lop of a aabalantial building two or
riMaa aletiaa high. Some of them am paimod in a
whiiaaifsl taite. and otbem adorned with groUsque 6>
naiaa During ilie toariahii^f atate of Holland, Saar.
3am, wbar* Viba the Oraat arqutrod a peartical know-
ledge of the art of ithip- building, derived great wealth
from that trade ; but it u now almost annihilated.

The miafalhnaimi manufiMtarm of Hollan<l, not vet
enimimataJ, aaat of wbiak however, are confmecl to wsi
AmaMadaaa, ara staA ambmhlarrd with gold anil tiU '
ver, daoMika, hracadu, mohair, »tN(, ft . ami partioi-
larijr tkapaipaatioDof dinca ifar dyeing, {laintiug, and
I.

82

HOLLAND.

Holand. medicine, such as camphor, vermilion, sulphur, borax,
*»^'-~' Ir.pis lazuli ; likewise pitch, tar, rosin, spermaceti, &c,
Ti>e oil mills ire numerous. The cordage made in
Holland is very good ; and Dutch paper, particularly
cartridge paper, is still exported in very great quanti-
ties, even to England, though we now rival or excel
tliem in the miiiiufacture of fine writing paper. Tlie
preparation of diamonds, th&t is, the cutting, polish-
ing, and grinding of them, is confined to Amsterd.im,
■wtiert many artists are employed for that purpose.
I'he nmiiufacture of skaits is also of some consequence
in fJolland.

Cummerce. The United Provinces were formerly pre-eminent
in commerce; and die province of Holland, from its
greater extent, population, and riches, as well as from
its possessing near all the sea-ports, enjoyed nearly
the whole of this commerce. Long before the French
Revolution, however the trade of the United Provin-
ces had begun to decline ; and the circumstances of
that tremendous event may be said to have utterly an-
nihilated the commerce of Holland. While it lasted,
it was carried on principally with France, England,
■Spain, and Portugal, the Levant and Mediten-anean
states, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark ; and with Ger-
jnany by means of the Elbe, the Rms, the Weser, the
Hhuie, and the Meuse. The inland trade with Germany,
by the canals and the Rhine, is almost the only branch
which has escaped the ravages of war. Of this, the
most remarkable feature consists in the vast floats of
timber which arrive at Dort from Andernach and other
places on the Rhine. The length of these rafts is from
700 to 1000 feet; the breadth from 50 to 90; and
500 labourers direct them, living in a village of tim-
ber luits erected on the rafts for their reception. The
navigation is conducted with the strictest regularity.
On their arrival at Dort, the sale of one raft occupies
several months, and frequently produces upwards of
aeao.OOO sterling. The commerce of Holland was ei-
ther transit or direct. The articles of direct commerce
were supplied either by her agriculture, such as butter,
cheese, &c or by her m;mufactures, as prepared drugs
for meditine, dyeing, &c linen, woollen cloth, paper,
&e. ; or they were supplied by her East India posses-
sions and her fisl\eries In return, Holland received
either what was necessary for her own consumption,
particularly corn, or those articles which she again
distributed over the rest of Europe. In the year 1807,
nearly one million pounds of •-ilk were imported into
England from Italy through the medium of Holland.

ropulation. "^he province of Holland is extremely populous;
perhaps more «o than any other part of Europe. In
the year I i 1 5, it contained only 45,000 houses. In the
year 1732, the number of hoil^es was increased to
163>62 De Witt, in his wtjrk on the true interests

In I6ii. of Holland, informs us, that, in the year l622, the
Slates laid a poll tax upon all inhabitants, none except-
ed but strangers, prisoners, and vagrants, and those
that were on the other side of the line; yet were
there found in all South Holland no more than 481,934,
although the instructions of the commissioners ap-
pointed for that purpose were very strict. The follow-
ing are the particulars, as registered in the Chamber of
Accounts :

Dort, with its villages 40,523

Haerlem, with its villages . . . 69,648
Delft, witfi Us villages ..... 41,744
Leyden and Rhineland .... 94,285
Amsterdam, and its villages . , . 115,022

Rotterdam, and its villages
Gouda, and its villages
Gomichem, and its villages
Schietlam, and its villages .
Schoonhoven and its villages
Brill, with its villages . .

The Hague

Heusden

28,339
24,622

7 585
1 0.293
10,703
20, 1 56
17,430

1.144

481,93*

De Witt supposes that West Friesland, or North Hol-
land, might have the fourth part of the inhabitants of
South Holland, or 120,483, which, added to 481,934,
would give 602, H 7 as the total population of the pro-
viiif;eof Holland in the year 1622. This, however, in the
opinion of I )e Witt, was far below the truth, and he raises
the number to 2,400 000. This mu.st be an exagge-
ration; and it is given here, only for the purpose of
adding De Witt's calculation of the proportions of this
number, engaged in different employments : according
to him, 450,000 were employed, directly or indirectly,
in the fisheries : 200,000 were supported by agricul-
ture, inland-fishing, herding, hay-making, tuH making,
and by furnishing materials for these operations :
650,000 in manufactures : 250,000 in navijration and
trade: 6,50,0(iO in miscellaneous employments; and
200,000 gentry, magistrates, soldiers, &:c In the year
1732, the population of Holland certainly did not ex-
ceed 98(1,000. In the year 1796, an estimate of tlie In 1796.
population of the Seven United Provinces was made
by order of the National Assembly, which we shall
give entire, for the purpose of comparing the popula-
tion of Holland with that of the other provinces.

Guelderland, in the towns, 64,994

in the flat country . . . . 15d,S34

217,828

Holland, in towns 495,017

in the flat country .... 333,525

828,542

Zealand, in towns 39,978

in the flat country 42,234

82,212

Utrecht, in towns 45,204

in the flat country ..... 47,600

92,904

Friesland, in towns 44,824

in the flat country .... 116,689

161,513

Overyssel, in towns 41,805

in the flat country .... 93,255

135,060

Groningen, in towns, 23,770

in the flat country .... 90, ;85

114,555

Tttf ceuBtry of Drent, in town* . . . 5.789
in the flat countiy SS,SSS

HOLLAND.

83

Dntcb firauant, iii the townt . .
iu the flat country

89,672

♦S,711
1 J'.', 166

808.177

T*tdr<r»-

The total i« 8I0.19« in town*, and 1.070,274 in the flat
eoantiiMa matriny the entire population of the United
Proriacea. ia the jrcar 1796, to be I,890,4€S. The po.
r*'**^'*' of the pfovinoe oC HoUaad aa itated abore, in
the jraar n3i. wa« 9K0.000, and in the jrear 1796 it
828,548. which ihaiei a decraaaa of 151,458 inha.
equal to oiii) thirtwutfi ti the whole popuU-

Maaatn

llooiA

The people of HoOwmI tamj be divided into the fol.
lowing rlawM n the downa, or boert, who cultivate
the land ; the ■oiaen, or ikippen, who navimte the
■faipa and inland bonia ; the OMfdHMli aad traden, who
fU the town* ; the remiamert, or men that that alao live
in town*, npen the KMaef their oMtfM; and the gen-
tleiMB, oJMcn of the amy aod OBTjr, naatinlea, tu.
The boors tmi ttmtf ea hartMh nala, ana milk. The

fee, or. nere peiperljr epeekie^ of lukewann water,
aceieely celwied. A gna* qnantity of (ptrituoa* li-
qnari are bIm drank ; *S6fiOO anken ef ccneen being

— Mittf n ■! I i Ml the Mwrinee af Helland. The

deal er MtleoMn, or ■ohfe*, i* yatjr hailed ; sMMt ut
the famfie* hnvi^g been estingniahed in the long wers
wiihSnain.

Of the charactoriatic nMnnere and cntteww of the
pMfda of UoUmhI we cm anljr nMnlion a few. To
every henee throtwhont North Ilolknd there ai* two
dooraj aneof whin i* never opaned but when a eorpae
or ft chriHe^ing ia carried Awn the houiei, while the
ether wrvea lor the ordinerjr nunote* of the fmmWr -.
thia CMlani ta peenhar to North Holland. The hoiue*
in ahnait evarT part ti the province have agajrappear^
aaerv the windowa end doen in general beag painted
gnan. The matt *cnipnlen* rhmilii i i ia ■racti*ed
iwipaeifaig theaa ; not only the windowa. but lao whole
fkeni oT ne hoMoe in mort of the lewne. ia gmmnliy

(erthet

valcr

i; and om anae care ia extended to the

LertkeattwtiinwWdiihe

waited two or three tiaee •■week, by eamcs fm i
ftpaer. which era ekandantly mppbcd with m,
neaithecnnel*; end the anae care ia extended to

rWeh the BMr* opalcM in.
A Drtck hoaee, kiihe old atyU ef
m ibejr are aaaa in Levden aiore pa

HoUuul.

Hcdihbul.

beagpttited their

TCMHiathiepeitcrUwheaM neeaia
■— ee they apptoecii In the lop of the
litmt.wtA*i the apper anartaMnta •»
froa the roaf a neeriy to hide i^ a
fle; and the extcfiaref each rata

; ateria h%h. the three Ant of

whKh are of ai eqiial breedlh. hat of aaetaal heighta :

the thod elory Ihe roof riaa to a paiat, and the

iaiwab in

ing. The

pr^jacta ee aarh

•d a pr»>

n^ till ^ftMt

ef the ante ■leryiatwo.dlwdaiea thai the faaeaent.
To Ihe epartaraef the ■apiiaiil ream a oaaoMaiy
fixedeaaall ornate the mnraawa of heitiag ep
weed and torf, and thaw caita aoaatinMe have gro-

Ihea. In the large ami
I town*. It ftwaently happoM* that
wouM grace tne aar„
nofl«her vi<>*< fron their windoai I

■ppam^ that epert>
■I of a prince, nave
Um the dead waU*

of a warehoufe. uaed a a magaaine fur stock-fish, skins,
tobaocoi, Ac. so that the eje may turn from the works — 'Y'"'
of Ruben* and Titian to these disagreeable and dis-
gusting object*.

The custom of aaoking is co prevalent in Molland, smoldnf.
that a genuine Dutch boor, instead of describing the
distances of places by miles or hours, ays, they are so
many pipes asunder. Thu*. a man may reach Delft
from Rotterdam in four pipes ; but, if he goes on to the
Hague, he will smoke aven during the journey. Ad-
joining to their theatre* is a room where refreshments
are to oe lold, and here the lovers of tobacco re«ort, to
aaoke their pipes between the act*. Their rigid atten-
tion to tWanfinea, and b^[otted attachment to smoking,
jointly give ria to a moat inconvenient and disgusting
cnatoa. After dinner, there i* placed on the table,
along arith the wine and glasses, a spitting-pot, which
is handed round a r^ularly a the bottle. AH Dutch-
men of the lower daaa* of aociety, and not a few in
the higher walk* of life, carnr in their pocket the whole
appantna that is neoea^ary for smoking : a box of enoiw
moos sixe, whidi frequently oontain* half a pound of
tobacco; a pipe of clay, or ivory, according to the fan-
cy or wealth of the poaacssor ; if the latter, be carries also
instromenta todcaa it; a pricker to remove obstruction*
ftan the tnbe of the pipe ; a cover of braa wire for the
bowl, to pie rem the aahcs, at aperk*. of the tobecoo
ftoa flying oaf; and aaaetiiiiH a tinder-box, or bottle
of pheapheras, to procore fire in case none is at hand.

When a woman b brought to beJ, a bulletin i<i daily
fixed to her houa. for the space of a fortnight or longer |"t^^
if she recover* *lowly, which contains a >t*toiTient <^
the heahh of the aiother and chikL This bulletin is
fastened to a board, omamentrd with lace, according
to the circaaeaaoa of the person lying in ; and aerva
to answer the iaqairia of (head*, and to prevent unne-
oaaary laia aaa the houa. ^^'hm a prrsnn of cnn-
seoaaaee isdaiwaaaaly ill, a bulletin of health is gene-
rally affixed to mir hciua ; but, unlr«t it is a child-bed
case, the board is not ornament' d with lace.

I'he women in HolUnJ, in general, are lovely rather VTann.
than beautiful ; in their person* they are well tormed ;
ylexiaia are Cur, and tlicir I'eatum regular,
but their caialenaiius sre inanimate. Women are
aherta>4ived in llolUiul than men ; and after twenty-
five amaaBy low all their beauty. Ihe matuigcmcnt
of chSdran a vay absurd and injudicious. I'he air of
the CMiuitfy is regarded a so prejudicial to them, that
fiw the first I " • ■ . e months they are never taken

abroad; and. .!ii» period, the windows of their

rOMnta aa kcitt invariably shut. Their diea con- p,,^ ^
ia flannel ranen, girt very tightly about tlieh- bo- chiUta.
dies, and Ihca ro! ' <rtlicr coveted with a l.irge

flannel wrapper, l- >«a (bar tii^a round the

hady of tlie mfiuit, and latened with nins at it« feet.
The ua of water is rigoroasly denied Uiem. Thu« ma-
naged, they are sickly, (qualid dbjerti Cliildren, par-
ticularly females, are fivquently indulged in the pemi-
cioaa uoe at e^atftpted*, or stove*, without which a
DntckwoiBai CDtud not exist, and this adds to their un-
whulcaane appearance. Wc may remark, hy tlie bye,
that the advanca of Britain in civiliaatiosv and useful
knowledge, are perhap* in no instance mo«« dcci<ledly
■'oti>nu-uiMU, than in the improved management of
Slany of our readers roust remember the

, vvlien British children were almort universally

clothed and treated a Dutch children itill are.
The female drca, socfa a it wu gtacrally worn in

&k

HGLrL AN D.

HoUond. IT(>ll.tml nearly two centuries since, ifi not unfrequently
*-^ '■"'^ siill seen on the cl:nighters of the ancient stock of
Ancient fe- biirj;licr8. The hiiir is bound close to the head, and
male dres.<. covered with a small nnornamented cap, with large
plates of thin gold projecting from eacli side of the
forehead, and a plate in the midille ; ponderous ear-
rings, and necklaces of the same metal ; gowns of thick
silk, heavily embroidered, and waists of unnatural
length and rotundity ; hats of the size of a small Chi-
nese nmbrella, gaudily lined witliin ; sometimes these
hats are set up in the air like a spread fan ; yellow
slippers, without quarters at the heel. Children and
wiM\ien of seventy are frequently seen in this preposter-
ous dress. Tiie Women of rank or fortune are very
fond of ornamenting their dress with rare and valuable
jewels. These, as well as the gold plates worn by the
lower orders, are of great antiquity, and are most care-
fully handed down from generation to generation.
Diuch Ian- The Dutcli language is evidently of Gotliic origin,
guage. but it is little known out of the United Provinces.

Dutch literature will lie more properly consiilered in
the article Nf.thkri.ands ; where, indeed, every thing
relatin<r generally to the history and statistics of the
Low Countries must be sought for ; as, in the present
article, we confine ourselves, as much as possible, to
Literature, the province of Holland. With respect to the encou-
ragement given to literature, this province was former-
ly very remarkable. Leyden, Amsteitlam, and the
Hague, may be seen on the title-pages of the most va-
luable works, in Latin and French, which were print-
ed during the 1 7th, and the beginning of the 18th cen-
turies. The Elr.ivers, justly celebrated for the coiTect
and beautiful editions which they have given to the
world of the best writers of antiquity, resided in Ley-
den, and ennobled its press by the elegant specimens of
typography, which, for the space of a century, ap-
peared from their press. During the bright period
of French literature, when the writings of Voltaire,
Rousseau, D'Alembert, &c. were eagerly sought after
by the learned and curious of Europe, the booksellers
at the Hague and Amsterdam multiplied the editions
of these authors, and carried on a lucrative trade with
their works. Haerlem is one of the places which lays
claim to the honour of the invention of the art of print-
ing ; but at present, the literary character, as well as
the bookselling and printing trade of Holland, are at
a very low ebb. There is one university in the pro-
vince of Holland at Leyden, and an inferior college at
Amsterdam.
Govern- Though the province of Holland is now only a part

nicnt and of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and of course has
lost many of its peculiar privileges and institutions, yet
some particulars respecting its government require to
be noticed, as they still remain under the constitution
of the Netherlands. Deputies of the nobles, and those
of the towns and country, are elected for the parliament
of the kingdom. There are also provincial councils of
state for South and North Holland. For the admini-
stration of justice, there aie two courts held at the
Hague ; namely, the court of Holland, and the high
council The nobles of Holland are subject to the ju-
risdiction of this court ; an appeal lies to it from the
sentences of the inferior courts. The high council of
Holland judge peremptorily and definitively of all cases
brought before tiiem by an appeal from the court of
Holland. Among the laws of this province the follow-
ing deserve notice. No person can be arrested for
debt who has not beon summoned regularly three times,
with the interval of 14 days between each summons; and

laws.

six weeks further must elaps« from the last official notifi- Holland,
cation and demand of the debt, before the creditor is per- """V""*'
mitted to arrest or seize the effects of the insolvent per-
son. By this mode of procedure, debtors are generally
enabled either fully to settle their affairs, or to com-
promise with their creditors, so that few are sent to
prison. No person can be arrested in his own house in
Holland, or even standing at the door of it, though
all the previous citations should have been made ; and
should his wife be lying in, he is privileged, during her
illness, to go abroad without molestation.

The religion of Holland is Calvinism. In it there Reli<n<ra.
are two provincial synods ; one for .South Holland, and
the other for North Holland. 1 he whole province be-
ing divided into a great many clas.ses composed of the
deputies of five or six neighbouring churches ; each
class sends four deputies to the respective synods, two
ministers, and two elders. The synods meet twice a
year, and a political commissary attends their meetings.
The ministers are paid by the magistrates. Their sala-
ries are small ; few, even in the cities, having £ 200 a-
year, while in the country they have generally £ 60 or
£70.

The taxes of the province of Holland are very heavy. Taxes.
They amounted in 1 795 to 24,000,000 of guilders, or
2,000.000 sterling, which, on the supposition that the
population was 800,000, formed an average of £2, 1 Os.
each person ; but a large portion of this taxation is, in
fact, paid by foreigners, who consume the articles tax-
ed. Among the taxes really paid by the inhabitants
themselves are the following : A land-tax of about
43. 9tl. per acre ; a sale-tax of 8 per cent, upon horses,
1| per cent, upon other moveables, and '2}, per cent,
upon land and buildings ; a tax upon inheritances out
of the direct line, varying from 2^ to 1 1 per cent. ; 2
per cent, upon every man's income ; an excise of £3
per hogshead on wine, and a charge of 2 per cent, on
all public offices. The excise upon coffee, tea, and salt
is paid annually by each family, according to their num-
ber.

The province of Holland, as well as all the countries Histon,
watered by the Meuse and the Rhine, were for a long
time divided into small earldoms ; but in the year 923,
Theodoric was appointed Count of Holland by Charles
the Simple, King of France, and the title became here-
ditary. The most frequent wars of the counts of Hol-
land were with the Prisons, a part of the old Saxons.
There were also frequent contests between the counts
of Holland and Flanders, concerning the possession of
the islands of Zealand. The counts of Holland, like-
wise, were frequently opposed by their own nobility.
In order to break their power, they not only demolish-
ed many of their castles and strong-holds, but also,
about the year 1200, built several cities, and gave free-
dom to the inhabitants of the adjacent country, or ev-
en to foreigners, who would come and dwell in those
cities. They were thus freed, not only from all taxes
due to the counts themselves, but also, when they had
dwelt in the cities a year and a day, from the vassalage
they were under to their own lords. The counts, besides,
gave especial privileges to those cities ; but the inhabi-
tants were not permitted, though at their own charge, to
set up gates or walls to defend their cities, unless they
purchased the privilege from the counts. Hence pro-
ceeded the difl'erence between walled and unwalled
cities in Holland ; and also, that the counts being af-
terwards jealous of the former, destroyed many of them
entirely, and pulled down the walls of others. Plnlippi-
na, daughter of William HI. Earl of Holland, was mar-

H a L L J* » D.

89

ricd to the Prince of WiIm, aftmrards Edward III. of
Eaahmd. TIm kinf aitrrward* contested the earldom of
iMMd with Margfarrt, hit sbter-in-Uw. In the 3rear
1417, Jacqneiin, beima of Holland, naarricd John IV.
Doke of Brabant ; but her unrle John of Bararia, who
had M^pwd tiw bubopric of Liege, in the hcfiea of
ewmemmui bar, oontetled the loccessinn. A kind of
•Z!«b7%H»w«L Jaequelin went t. I. where,

ia 14^, aba married Hamphrey, l>u. mcerter;

batihia laaiiiagt haviny bean annullad bj the I'ope, she
married, in H99, Borttim, aladtfaalder of HolUnd.
Bat havinir no cfcildrta bjr aaj at bar haibanda, Philip
tba Good. Dike «f Bargimdy, who wat her fiivt cou-
ilmfltMgtt her lo fira optae adminittration and go>
vvnoMOtaf bcr ttatea.aaaat her death inherited thno.
S«en afterwardi, HeMand, with the other Urge powaa
•iana of the Houaa of Burjpindy, fell bjr mamaf^ to
tk* HoMe of Aottria. It* history, from thia period,
BMt ba aaadkl iot omltr the article NcTHKRLAKOt.
8b9 AHMMlDar MOOtHtttt ^ iMmtum^ by R. Meterlecarap,
IMM; Dv Witfa Tme Imreat of iMtmmd ; Sir Wi|.
liam Tcwpl^a Ohterttttitm* om ih« NtAtrUmlM ; Mrs
Radcliffir-a Jottmw tkromgk IhUand •• I79» ; A Tmtr
lAfmg* lAe BmSkiau tbrnUk fa 1800. by R. PaB.
(^.•■)

HOLLAND, New. an iiland m the Smib TtaAe
which Miaa* yagiapbaia have calM • canti>
in !!■■ I iif rncnt. Ita aaitial oudine
ilothalofaapbcr&ltiiai^ It

boiiili
Notoaia

Caflain

of abariuBax; smI ka
hvm Cape York on the
fai 99* iO^ aovtblatf.
oaBadtbaGml
I bspoatd by tbe
al an aaaiy ■ariod ;
, , toaherittMilMianto

Mr Pinkattaa. and to Terra AnainHi by
neither of which will ptohsbly ba
<f^ whaterer bc4n)f known of the mta*
riori and very little with ctrtainty of the akirt* of lb*
isiami, it h only ditnried into partiom called hy the
mneaof (bair aappaatd <Mw>i iwnii atd the vmaeh
wbicb tbay tuminaniW ; m, knMmtt. Van n!nnen%
De Witf a, Dnibacbi'a or CarcardX B^' - >•*•

in'a land, an dar nortb aMi iraal. and ^ land

ontbaaaatb. Tbvcaal oomt wmaarveycd^emerally
by Captain C«ek, awl edM New South Wake; and
the pOTtfaa ftwi Ch» How*, the aooth^eaal rmvmity,
Mnyta'a AwMpahpo. wbafv the raeofnitmi of that
M OTppaaad to ba^^

toNnyta'

<^ ■ Mippamii w oeve lennMMlMli ocrapyme
n 7rOand MM) milea, waa mnbiad by lyEntoi^
«.C:apliiBFIiBdats, and M.BHdbi,aad alto HMM

N«e Hanaad ia begirt wiUi
Alvfrpottion aftbecnnt is
roeln ar rftoali, or tbe nitiplluw AmmiM of the
•bwta; bM tbe frcMar part i« low and amiy, eitaBiit.
ng a baRtn aapact. A few lofty hMdIanda pMeet
«>*• ibaaaa; bam and harboore an rvaly to be sMn,
and navigable nwm are •earedy yM dhmund. Tbe
northern oaMieiBdntHl by tbe imaanaeMlf of Car>
P»«»»^«^«^*«f **■»•■• ta ••«•«•»■» t& entrwer,
and pcMtratbur BOO toBn faMetlie land; which, al-
tbMgb it ia rwWy laM dMvn in the D«cb chart* of
tte I7th erntnry, waa Cr« eanplMaly eniarwl by
Oipiabi Flinden in iSOt. Sbwin Biy. wtm« Dam.
jjjnm^tni ^J^j^wM.lalrir to«wtahi«l by the

there are several lea
Kins George'* Sounil

on the south coaat, as
Tort Philip, wul Wcstcrn-port,
at the second of which a Dritish settlement xms at-
tempted in ISOt. On llie cast coast, Bi • is
the moat important, from the flouri^hini; e~t iit
connected with it ; and two other iiileu of a ditierent
deacriptioa on the south coaat merit notice, fron: being
aoppoaed the entrance to some great ri\-fr dividing
New Holland asmider. One of the^e, CHlled Bona-
parte's Gulf by the French, and Speiicer's Gulf by
the English, 48 mile« wide at the mouth, penetrate*
the land 185 miles, terminating in a point exactly op-
poalte to the bottom of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The
other, separated flvm it by York'x PniinsuUi, of which
tbe otrcrae point lies in I.s6° S'i* Vmi Longitude, is of
wnillfr rtimwiriiin i Thetideflowk40milesupHawkes.
boTT r^- — •■filing into Broken Bar, near Port Jack-
son! I is navinhle by the wgeat resaels, and
still tartiirr l.y those rawing nine ftet water. It ia
the moat important river hitherto seen in New Holland ;
and tma the Hooding* ahore, sooetimes overflows those
paru of tbe banks 40 or 60 fcet above iu ordmary
ierd, theteby committing great devaatatioo. King
Vranmi'* Mrer, on the wcat eoaat, is now conjectured
to be Htde more than a creek, whoae narrow entrance
ia ofaahractcd by rocka.

Nothing can- l>e more rapnUre than the bleak and
dreary appearance of thooaanda of miles occupied by
tbe ahoraa of New Holland. Tbe earth is |wirched,
anmlcd, and animal lifb aaeaae incapable of
■nppartad. ft«n tbe unirarad aoarci^ of aubaisu
Ita low, niftifni and starfle aipact n mdi, that

HollMlll.

.Sew.

be SO

deep. And

many cenerir* the whole haa only bean raoently i«>
claimed tram tbe sea. Nor is it so with the continent-
al part of New HolUnd akme; for. amkl«t the nume>
voM iskmds on the south, " mKfaing smiles tn thr ima>
ginatkn ; the soil ia naked ; tbe baareiM l> re

and doDdles*: the wave* agflatad. but \>s >«1

galea. Man teams to have fled these ungratrtui rp>
glens ; and the navigator, trrrifled by dangers incaa-
sandy ranewvd, turn* aaide hia waaiy eyes from the
mtserable •horea.'* Vet, admitting that tne exterior ia
of Utrr ori|;in, we m<i<( rrflect on the vatt extent of
the interiur yet unki>own ; where lofty moantains,
wide rivers, tnd ihiik fmcsts, may all be Orouent A
gmicr pardon ia unexplored than equal to tne cotmo
of th« fangMl river in the world ; and pdnibly ita
ittimmm mmj be reerirtd in lakes, disilniiwl b> tub*
terraneoua cbanitcU, or absofbed in andy oeaartt. We
ara aware, indeed, that, in the warmer Huaates, iaUitds,
which are tbe work of as inconsidanable insect, arise
in tbe aoaa ; that iher become a retting phee for bbtb ;
«la«W|iMhian «d fcrtilliaiiou follow ; the seeds of
pinta are eonveyad thither, — ' f-r deddooos parts
of VMMbles are not slow in i new loiL Nei-

tlMT n it improbable that vo)c.iii<r truptiooa may form
a nudeoa or tulntrtum for future aumiuo*. Still
these *ec»a*loM an so gradual, that many agea would
be lenuired fltr tbe fbrmataun of so great a country a«
New HolIamL Baaidca, tbe appearanoe of the eoeat
cannot be rigoreoaly applied to Vbt interior; and tboae
miaenb supposed to enter the oonatitotioa «f primi-
tiw ■ountams, are discovered hei*.

We are not enabled to give any ipedfie account of the Miaaabgy.
mineralogy of tfai* oountry. Wilson's Pramontory con-
sists of gfwiite ; there are several small islands, some of
which are granitic, and some volcanic ; and coal is dia>
covered ncer the sorface. Colonrad ptedoot atone* are
ahondd to bavt b— foond in illl>fil inila, brt we d>

86

HOLLAND.

HoUand,
New.

Botany.

Aaimals.

not know whether tlieir precise quality has been ascer-
tained.

In so far as the country is yet explored, the vegeta-
ble creation is diffused more rarely than under corre-
sponding latitudes, and fewer products are convertible
to the use of mankind. It is disclosed only in scanty
patches, where the soil has underjfone amelioration ;
and there it appears in all possible variety, from
the coarsest grass creeping on the ground to forests
consisting of trees of immense girth and altitude. It
is said of the eastern parts, that " all the plants of this
country are evergreens, and numbers of them are to
be seen covered with blossoms at all seasons of the
year.'' M. Leschenault remarks, " that in the districts
hitherto visited, and especially the western coast, there
have never been found in great masses, either the majes-
ty of the virgin forests of the New World, the variety
and elegance of those of Asia, or the delicacy and
freshness of the woods in the temperate countries of
Europe. Vegetation is in general dark and sombre;
it resembles the shade of our evergreens or copses.
Fruits are for tlie most part ligneous ; the leaves of al-
most all the plants are linear, lanceolated, small, coria-
ceous, and spiny. This peculiar texture springs from
the aridity of soil and climate; and it is doubtless ow-
ing to the same causes that cryptogamous plants are
so rare." Most of the plants of New Holland consti-
tute new genera, and those belonging to genera alrea-
dy established are almost as many new species. Their
numbers and variety are amply described in the works
of M. Labillardiere and Mr Robert Brown, to which we
shall refer for ^illustrations. A plant approaching the qua-
lities of |J,cofree has been found, two species of tobacco,
and a kind of indigo. Odoriferous gum exudes co-
piously from a tree abundantly disseminated, which is
used for difierent purposes by the natives, and has
gained some credit among the settlers for curing dy-
senteiy. Wood of beautiful colours, fit for the finest
cabinet work and inlaying, is common ; and other kinds
have been employed in building vessels. But amidst
the great diversity of plants, only some small berries, a
few roots, and leaves, have yet been found which are
suitable food. The climate of New Holland is parti-
cularly noxious to European fruits, as most of those in-
troduced have speedily perished. Grain, however,
succeeds admiiably, producing a certain and luxuriant
harvest, though the soil for the most part is soon ex-
hausted, and some of what was once brought under
culture is now completely abandoned.

A field equally new is presented in the animal
world, where an infinity of beings are beheld on this
continent, its shores, and islands, that never were seen
before. Mollusca are so numerous, that, on one of the
latter, the French voyagers collected 180 species.
Great shoals of whales and dolphins fill the seas, but
in many parts they are rare. The phocse are so multi-
plied, that profitable fisheries have been instituted for
their skins and oil, though it is so indiscriminately fol-
lowed in destroying the young as to threaten the extir-
pation of the genera. Among birds, the black swan,
cassowary or emu, mountain eagle, and menura, are
the most remarkable. The first, which is black as jet,
except two or three white feathers of the wings, covers
the lakes and rivers in flocks during the greater part
of the year. The emu is seen both on the conti-
nent and the islands; and there is sometimes found an
enormous nest, two or three feet in diameter, belonging
to an unknown bird, perhaps of the flamingo kind.
Quadrupeds are exceedingly rare, both in species and

Hollanil,

New.

numbers, compared with the extent of the country.
Besides the dog, which is akin to the shepherds' dog of
Europe, and never barks, it is supposed that another car- ~ v —
nivorous animal of somewhat larger size approaches the
coast, which has not been seen. The members of the last
French expedition having prepared to pass a night on
Edel's land, inform us, that " suddenly a terrible roaring
froze us with terror ; it resembled the bellowing of an
ox, but was much louder, and seemed to come from the
neighbouring reeds." Most probably this was an alli-
gator, both from the sound and situation. The greater
proportion of the quadrupeds of New Holland, though
absolutely new and unknown in other parts of the
world, belong to the opossum tribes. Those attract-
ing most attention are the kangaroo of various species ;
the wombat, and a singularly formed creature, the pa-
radox or duck-billed ant-eater. The first is hunted
for the sake of its flesh ; the second has been domesti-
cated by the settlers ; the third, an amphibious animal,
is now found more abundant in the late excursions
which have advanced furthest into the interior. Per-
haps we should add to the brute creation those in-
troduced into New Holland since the year 1788.
Three cows and a bull having strayed into the forests,
propag.ited there, and many thousands of wild cattle are
seen in great herds, which it is dangerous to approach.
Sheep and swine have succeeded well, but the coun-
try proves unfavourable to goats. So little of New
Holland has 3-et been explored, as to admit a strong
presumption of many interesting accessions to zoology
in addition to what it has already received.

The most striking peculiarities are beheld in that Inhabitants
portion of the human race who inhabit these regions.
In stature, the New Hollander is of the middle size ;
with a large misshapen head, slender extremities, and
the belly projecting as if tumefied. The colour of
the skin is reddish at birth, and then deepens almost
to African blackness ; but this is not uniformly so,
and some are only of the copper or Malay cast : the
hair is long and black, not woolly ; the nose flat, nos-
trils wide, and the mouth immoderately large, with
thick lips. These, added to bushy eyebrows, and other
characteristics, give the natives a remarkable appear-
ance : Dampier, who says " they are of a very un-
pleasing aspect, having no one graceful feature in their
faces," seems inclined to doubt whether they should be
ranked with the human race ; and Mr Collins instances
" one man, who, but for the gift of speech, might very
well have passed for an oran-outang : he was remark-
ably hairy ; his arms appeared of an uncommon length :
in his gait he was not perfectly upright, and in his
whole manner seemed to have more of the brute and
less of the human species about him than any of his
countrymen." Yet the physiognomy of the New Hol-
landers is not disagreeable ; nay, it is said, that the de-
licacy which is to be found among white people, may
be traced on the sable cheeks of their females. Suste-
nance being so scanty, and clothing never employed,
a decided effect is seen in the want of physical strength,
and the consequences of perpetual exposure. In their
persons all are filthy ; the regular ablutions of many
eastern nations are not performed, and the disgust
of strangers is heightened by the custom of both sexes
rubbing fish oil into their skins as a protection against
the legions of insects swarming around them. Tattoo-
ing, so general in the South Seas, is not practised by
the New Hollanders ; but they have a mode of raising
tubercles on the skin, and both sexes ornament them-
selves with scars on the breast, back, and anus. The

HOLLAND,

87

abling ttie feet of animalt,
^*** being nwd* bj the dura edge of • shell, and kept
•^-" ■ ■"" open, the ikin form a urge aeam in healing which
Tnh-Wt-n'i is verr ilirtnTgiitfh***'* in youth, but i« ahnost totally
efiaced by age. Men have the septum of the no«e per-
forated to reccire a bone, and are subjected to the ez-
Uactionof soase of the iixiBt teeth when the^ attain the
MB ef paberty ; and the wooicn are dennved of the
Sat t«« joinu ct the little Saner of the left hand.
Their permial omemsnU are not BamcRtus, eooeisting
of the teeth of beasts or mankind glned to their hair,
feather*, and the tail of the dog : and certain tribe* di-
i^de their hair into paroda, matted together with giun
inlopwtiaBslikc tbethraauof a moil. Themenako
omamait theBselrca previous lo a dance or combat,
with bread Mibcs af white paint, used entirely acct>rd.
inc to taste, wtthont any definite fathion. " NMne," Mr
Cdlinaobstfves, " whan drewrated in their best man-
ntr, leaked padectly horrible: nadm^ eaoU appear
mora terrible than • black and diimal fiMe, with a large
white drde drawn round each ejre."

All arc absoliitclj naked : Some of both sexes wear
the akin of the kangaroo around their shonlden as a
rleffapea ffiotit the weaUkcr, but Car no otiier nnrpose.
A ftw of toe men alM mo with a cMle about tae loins,
but the natwal aiaae of the whofa it aheeiule nmHtr,
and akay wiUi it. oeiiiM

any senae ti shame Niiiilhalaw, riolelioas of (
tjtjr wem inteitaiy more iinruaimim than where a fisfl
propartioa of clothing is used Their habitations are
of the meat niisrrahli doacriplion, the beat being <
very kmg pMoas of barm bent m ancn a mannee,
the ends stack into the ground, as to wasmbli iIm
roof of a bum. Msby have no other aballer thai rsdut
or trcM. or eron hoMS in the earth. TiM subaslsiioe
of thoM hithnto savi on the Utant, m thlktj lah:
they also leed oa a kind of lanra, or wana, lorfciqg u»>
der the bark of trees, which is siiisniiilj divnstnig to
the view, hat tipd>id a mat dalieacy ; aao tiary ao*
daavour to msuati wild aakaak. Captata FHndew
found a mee at Kmg Ceorga^a Soand. who eaeoMd to
live more br huiitiBg thaD lihiiig ; sad tho* are ii».
rtha woada aaitb«wast af Betaay Bay, who
a parte of the An toot aad nts braised to.
ysthar.
The arU are hare ia the krwast Mimei
: unknown, aD the I

in the masM af

"H

oTborfc
althebetlam

Tha,

KlMa» or ■ffw#il

of the Gulf of Cefpentaria. the laigaat of all. are thir.

tcaa Ceet sad a half laag. by two aori a half htuad.

But man* of the trftee seam qaite uaaaqaahMed with

thaak Same tribm have also scoop iMts aad eamsMa

ortaferirfiing; oae of the latter ao lamdaaMtMt

lo^ awl thyae hwad, ransiitimi af hsger wishm sad

*«najfir twme thaa aay Baglisb twiae, WM

at CSsi huats ba^ an the east ccMt. Their

woodea laaesa, woodca ewon

One ef their firiang implaMBis is a fbur-poiatad

In reganl to social
is none : all we caa ■
fiunilic*. the oldcat
riority over those ii
There i« no arknowl
law*, cteept those of

prwaliL there
iii, that'they arv divided kilo
of which daaas a supe>
hiw.
of chieft; nor are anv
it

Hollud,
Sew.

is bv this means that even their marriages are accom>
plished. Instead of the courtship, suit, and persuasion
employed in other countries, the object of aesire, ee-
nerally of another tribe, is felled to the earth with a >l»nner»
club, in some rtrnote situation, and dragged in a state ""'""W"*-
of insensibility to the ilwelbng, if such it may be called,
of the hnslMind. She becomes his wife, and frequently
remains attached to him ever after. Sometimes, how-
ever, a more favoured lover i:i found, for whom the
husband ia deserted ; and many of the men do not con*
fine themselves to a single wife. Their offspring is
named after some visible object, a quadruped, a bird,
or a fish ; and female* are m the earliest infaiic}- sub-
jccted to that mutilation of the little finger above re-
ferred to. Women are held in great subservience.
They are the victim* of all the barbarity which the su-
perior power of savages can inflict, as is too incontes-
tibly proved by the innumerable scars by which their
bodies arc covered. The New Hollanders either bum
or bar>- thrir dead ; and in general if a mother dies,
while suckling her infant, it is burie<l alive in the tame
grave. They are utter strangers to religion : they have
no im^iges, nor can they be said to entertain apy idea -
of a future state.

These people, however, are acquainted with tome
rcmakabw customs, of which the first and most con-
tpictMuls is, depriving youths at the age of puberty of
an upper Aunt tooth. Many ceremonies precede the
operation, which are conceived to bestow tne more va-
ludbla ptepwty of certain bruten upon them, and the
opnation entitles them to the privileges of men, with
whom they are now enrolled. They equip theotaelvet
with long tails hi imitation of kangaroos ; crawl on
their hanoa and fret, and scrape up tlie earth like dogs ;
aad remain notioalea the whole night before the opera-
tion. After some preparation by the incision of the gum,
the tooth is itraek oat by main force, but with conadar>
able dexterity. The otiject of this custom it altOMther
mmftaiB ; it haa been supposed a tribute whidi one
tribeeooM exact of another ; but there u not tuflicimt
evitlenoe that this i« the case. The custom is, however,
widely, though not universally, diffused. Daropieraffimt
of those en the north-west coast, that " the two fore teeth
of their upper jaw are wanting in all nf thrm, men
■ad woaeen, okl and young." Captn , r* saw

iatHeMaals at the south- wert rstrem. ijd pre-

all their teeth. However, around the tcttle-
at Port Jackson, there are no ncrptions. Here
it ia the right finoottoeth w! -racted. On the
aerth eoaat, it is the left; an (lulf of Cari>en-
taria the men eeen by Captain Fiindera lud lost both.
We do not know whether tne loss of atembert be deem-
ed tlibatary aaMiig any notion where it it prsctisad ;
bat it has been LiMy asserted, that, mi tTu tleatli of
the chief of the island of Owhyhee, r. Ae

matt extract a tooth. Thccau^ofn . .it-

tla filler of the women, according to • .is to

avoid an eiiibariamiiiint which would i: .» ;:jc fiab>

Another verr extraordinary cuttom it the exact mea-
sure of retalietMn observed fur injuries. Thry have no

Uwt: but bUiod must slwsyt be fol! ■ bliNid.

If chiltirm when at play receive a f k rrtum

it by tine of equal *■ — ^■- '' - — i. wmini. d. the
aggiiettw itoomprl r totlic tlir<><>ing

of the SuAtc^S spear, or timi <•! ,i|; siiil 't a

man of one tribo tlMoUl Ite iit> bc^trti by

tbaea of aaothv, MMtindividaal at tae latter imnt tot-

H O L

as

Holland, (lergo a similar punishment. Yet there are many treach-
^'*' erous and midnight murders, and as savages sleep ex-
■""^ tremely sound, this is the moment selected for ven-
klanncrs geaiicc. It rathcrs appears also, that the death of eve-
(ndcustoms. ry individual, natural, accidental, or intentional, must
be followed by shedding some person's blood. The dis-
position of the New Hollanders, as described by one
who should know them well, is revengeful, jealous,
courageous, and cunning. " The inhabitant of Port
.Jackson is seldom seen, even in the populous town of
Sidney, without his spear, his throwing stick, er his
club. His spear is his defence against enemies ; it is
the weapon he uses to punish aggression, and revenge
insult. It is even the instrument with which he cor-
rects his wife in the last extreme ; for, in their passion,
or perhaps oftener in a fit of jealousy, they scruple not
to mflict death. It is the play-thing of children, and
in the hands of persons of all ages. It is easy to per-
ceive what effects this must have upon their minds.
They become familiarized to wounds, blood, and death,
and are repeatedly involved in skirmishes and dangers.
The native fears not death in his own person, and is
consequently careless of inflicting it on others " Ne-
vertheless, it does not appear that the savages of New
Holland are animated by the same treacherous ferocity
as many of the neighbouring islanders. They are not
cannibals : Strangers on the east coast, though surpris-
ed when asleep, have escaped with impunity. On
the north coast they are more ferocious ; but the san-
guinary disposition of their European visitors may have
sometimes excited the desire of revenge.

The New Hollanders consist of tribes inhabiting
different districts ; but contrary to what is known
among all savages still less barbarous, the right of
individuals to territorial possessions, which are trans-
mitted by inheritance, is apparently recognized.

The whole of this vast country seems inhabited
only by a single race of people, intimately resembling
each other in person, appearance, and manners, and
who have not undergone the slightest change since
Dampier's visit in the year 1688. In every different
part that Eui'opeans have landed, however, a different
dialect is spoken ; and these general conclusions are
deduced from a number of instances comparatively
small. Few natives consent to hold intercourse with
strangers. Captain Flinders circumnavisated the whole
coast of New Holland without having beheld a single
woman from the time of leaving Port Jackson until
his return. It has been conjectured, on very slight
probabilities, that New Holland has been peopled from
Papua. The natives of Botany Bay call themselves
Gal, distinguishing their tribe or family by prefixing
the name of the place which they inhabit. There is a
tribe in Abyssinia designed Galla; the Highlanders of
Scotland are denominated Gael ; therefore, without in.
vestigating the source of affinities in name among peo-
ple so remote from one another, we shall simply sug-
gest, that Gal, Gael, or Galla may signify nothing
more than people. The present race presents a morti-
fying picture of mankind sunk in the lowest state of
degradation, and, were we to judge hastily, we should
say, they are incapable of civilization. The South
Sea islanders have made wonderful progress in the
arts and civilization, from the transient visits of Eu-
ropeans. The natives of New Holland, who have
witnessed the cultivation of the earth, the erection of
houses, and the fabrication of apparel, for nearly thirty
years imiaterruptedly, still go UAked, seek a precarious

H O L

subsistence, and shelter themselves under rocks, or in
caves, from the stomi. Exceptions may be found, but
they are only of a few individuals ; nor is any change
ever to be expected, but in selecting otliers in the ear-
liest childhood ; for so deeply rooted is their attach-
ment to savage life, that a native carried to I'ngland,
and supplied with every comfort, soon after his return
stripped himself naked, and sought for greater enjoy-
ments among his barbarous countr3'men. See Aus-
TiiAr.AsiA, BoTANV Bav, and Diemen's Island, (c)
HOLSTEIN See Dk.vmark, vol. vii. p. fii*.
HOLYHEAD, is a sea-port and market-town of
North Wales. It is situated on a small island, on the
north-west side of die island of Anglesey, and denomi-
nated in British Caer Ci/hi, or the fortified place of
Cybi. The town consists of one principal street, with
detached buildings. The collegiate, now the parochial
church, is a handsome embattled cruciform structure,
consisting of a chancel, nave, aisles, and transept, with
a square tower, which supports a low flat spire. It ap-
pears to have been built about the time of Edward III.
An assembly-room and baths, and a large new inn and
hotel, have lately been opened. There is also here a
free-school, estabhshed in 17.57- This place seems to
have been once in the possession of the Romans. On the
summit of the mountain called Pen Caer Cybi, standsf
a circular building, (called Caer twr.) 60 feet in dia-
meter, supposed by Pennant to have been a watch-
tower. A long dry wall, 10 feet high, in many places
faced and quite entire, runs along the side of the moun-
tain. The precincts of the church-yard seem also to
be ancient. Three of the sides of the parallelogram
consist of massy walls, 1 7 feet high and 6' feet thick ;
the fourth is open to the harbour. At each angle is a
circular bastion tower, and round the walls are two
rows of round openings or oeillets, four inches in dia-
meter, having the inside smoothly plastered.

As the island on whicli the town stands is the point
of land nearest to Dublin, regular packets are stationed
here for the accommodation of travellers passing be-
tween England aiid Ireland. The distance between
Holyhead and Dublin is 20 leagues, a voyage which is
generally performed iu 12 hours, though sometimes in
six. In stormy weather the packets have sometimes
been two or three days at sea. Six packets are in the
constant employment of the Post-office. One goes out
every day except Thursday, and returns next morning.
These packets are well constructed and well manned,
so that serious accidents very seldom happen.

The harbour of Holyhead is formed by the cliffs un-
der the church-yard, and a small island called Inys
Cybi, on which there is a light. This harbour has been
lately much improved. A pier has been built on the
eastern side of it to enable vessels to ride at anchor in
four fathoms of water. In connection with this improve-
ment, a new road has been made quite acress the coun-
try from Cadnant island, near Bangor ferry, to the har-
bour, which saves seven miles. A new light-house
has also been erected on a small island, or rather pro-
jecting rock, to the w/sst of the head called the South
Stack. The light, which is a revolving one, is about
200 feet above the level of the sea. In order to see
tlie lighthouse, persons are wafted over by ropes in
a kind of basket. The promontory, called the Head,
is a huge mass of rocks excavated by the sea in-
to the most magnificent caves, one of which, called the
Parliament-house, is peculiarly fine. It is accessible
only by boats at half ebb tide, and exhibits grand re-

H O L

89

H O L

Haly

ea£ag mhMvttlSKiiimt thape*, wpported bjr magni-
fidcnt piUan of rock. The promontory consisu of
IoAt cun esmvated into Ur^e cmvems, which afford
•belter to awarms of birtl*, auch a« pigcoiu, ^Ils, raaor
billa. ravana. xuillemotat oonnoranta, and herana. The
ftengiina falooa ia found on the loftiest cra^a. As
the ca|a tiwmmy of the above mcntioocd binb are coo-
aa detieioiM food, and are thcreTore in high re<
|r of the people of the country cam their
in the daQgCTCiaa nccupatiop of oollectin|>
the^gpa. InordcetoaeoMnpCah their purpoae, a atrong
atake la driven into the miand at a little diitancr from
the edge of the dil*. anaa rope is tieil to it of raSdent
length to reach the lowot neata. The adrentiurcr tica
the rope aboat hie nuddle. and, with the coil on hia
ana, he aeiaea it with bath banda, and gradoaliy de-
■Bfidi the diff, plaoag hia fret ^aiaat ila Mtae, nd
BhiftiiHi hia handa with great caution. When he rcMJi-
ca the Bcal, he helda bjr the right haod, and with hia
left aeisn the wga, and plaoea them in a baakct

OTcr 1^ ^M^

The ialand on which Holjrhaad atmla ta called Holy
lakad. and reeetved thia naaae ftom the namber of
piaai peraona who were bvried Man it It coositfa
chiciy of bare rock* and aterileaaada. In the southern
pnt of it. near Ftmr Mik Bridge, ia a qwvry of aarw
or BMfble, witaimng a men aaaianlhM.

which dtvidaa thia iriawi A«a the fwt
ia narrow, and

" A lelcmn, hug«, and dark nd pile,
Pbcnl on Um nutgio of the itie."

Mabmiov.

Holy

laUiui.

Holywdl.

, slung

The
of Ai

nbe fredad at
rish road paaaai
m hrid(e adied Ebjrd j iW.

The fullawing ia the population af the
181 1 :

Na. of iofaaUlad henaaa, 559

NoL ^ frniliee, 701

Da CBplc^rJ in trmAr aixl tnanufacture*, 496

Melaa,. . ... i "17
Femalra, J0*g

Total population. aOtii

9m P^ — • • Tomrt and The Btmmtki ofEitgUmd mmd

HOl.i .^i^.Np, iaan island lilaalfi ahaot twewilaa
from the coast of N'orthaabahHl. bat bdkHing,
ht all civil msUart. to the aNRMy of Dnrhani : (Sa«
J)t/an»«. roL viii. p. 801. ooL 2.) It is sitiMtcd eppo>
aite to the month 0/ the bfvak Lindia. fnm whidi it
racrireJ the naaie of Liadfatena. Bv the Brilana it
waa called /aa Mtdkmu. and bjr the EamlUk Holy
laiiJ. fcaaa being th« leaiJiw ii mnS^ci the tL
Am of the Celtic tkanh, id dao ftani hwaw been
Iherpiaeapal ««t of the sea of Dmk$n dM&« the
mtty agm a Chrittimthj in Britain. ThedMidlaf
•ha aMnaalery ia ia raiaa. Ita aatth and aaalk walla
« ana rtaadiag, thaogh they decline gtaatly ftnai
the penandkalar. The caat wall ia fidlni. but grant
part of the wrtt atiO laaiini. 1'he ardbca an in
gcnnal atrictly Saaan. and tha piUara on which ihey
rr* are short. Mronir. and eMMjr. The poiatad win-
dows indicate that the bwlding baa bean m^ad at a
mOmmmA prried. The Icncth of the body af tha
cbarA ia ee fret : iu breadth 18 faal, ad SS feat in-
da^ttfc the two aislaa. Mr Sdby. the proprietor of
OieialafMl, has lately rapaiml the weakcal part of the
walla. ThertoneaaaMarrcd with fire, and are wasted
■way aa aa to rrenaMa a bonrvcsnih.

vaL. u. rsKT I.

ia aad

Tlie remains of the priory and offices stand on the south
side of the monastery, the inside of the walls being
built of whinstone, obtained from the rook, which forma
a high natural pier on the south side of the i»lniid.

The parish church, situated to the wVst or the monas*
tery, is a plain but apadotis Gothic edifice. I'he pe>
deMal of M Cutbbert's cross, once highly eateeuied, is
now called the Pehing Stone

Holy Island is aeceiiible at low water by all kinds
of carriagea, though there is cons'' iTang<T in

rrnaiiBg the sands without a guide. I. which

ia a continued plain, is nine miles 111 circuuilt-mice,
aad oantainsMMriy lOSO acres, about one half of which
IB aand banluk On the nortlweast side of the isUnd is
a tongueof land about a mile long, aiul in several plaoea
not moc« than 60 yards wide. Tlie tide may be hare
seen ebbing on the eaat, and flowing on the wcat.
Thoagh the coil is rich, yet, before tiie rnclosure of
theemftmon in i7iH, only 40 acrea were in tillage.
It -'lerrnt ot'the whole island was tSiO, and

ill • <^6. The town lies on the west side of the

ialand. it appears to have been once much Isr^^tT, from
thenaoMa and ruins of the streets. It i> i>riiiil|>a]ly
iahabitad bjr-Aahermen. The harbour, ^ nail,

liaa baftim the town and the castle, aiul mled

byabittary. The caatla stands on sluHy »l>insiimerock
oa the ioiilh laal part of the ialand, about (>o teit high.

only in a narrow winding pans. It is
generally gmiiauned by a drtaclimrnt nrini.ili.u

The panab of Holy IsU' nd-

shire, and eonUtaa tha ch-^ 1.^..^, Lv.Mid(,

Aaeooft, and Tiiiiilmaalh

Hd^ Island was aaada a biahop'a tee bv K-- '>..
wald m 6S5. In 6M. thcdMiroh was enlsr.
waa oiUy OMiie of timber aad thatched ; ami, mi wj^,
Eadberct, who was bishop for 10 yean, covrrrd the
roof and walU with ahccta of lead. The Danes landed
on the ialand in 799. and a second time in S'5, when
Biihrin Eardulph, along with the iahabitanta of tbis
ialantC took up the body of .St CatUMtt, aad left tha
ialand with aD their reixa and aacrad utenails. AAer
• pi%tiwagi af «««■ yean^ ihajr at last settled in

tathantuntsin 1811. there were in Holy

Na^bif af mhabitad hoosee 159

Do. cnploMd ia igrfcaltara 67

I^ fai tiada and aaaalMtBrrs .... «7

Totd pepafatiaa 675

Sea Seolt^ Manama, eaalo ii wbidi eonUins a fine
poeticd ilmcnptiua of Holy IsUnd ; tb< nf

Frnglamdrntd frelw.ToLuL p. 288 ; and Ii ...... n's

Ilutory of Durham.

HO'I.VWELL. or TacrrTimnic, ia a town of North
Walra, in Fbiitahirr, which derives it* name from a re-
markably fine spring, which n'..-. 3f the bottom of the
hill just below the town. 1 f pleasantly situa*

ted on the slope of a hill, aUK.i,i...,K m lead ore. which
riaea beautifully above the town. The place is fkHirish.
ing and wcjl built, and c^staU of one kmg street.

H O L 90 H O M

HolyweU. wliich is crossed by another near its centre of equal SeeT/ieBeauiiesof England and Wales, \o).x\ii.'p. 708,

^— -V*— cooclness. &c.

Thechurch was built in the year 1769. It is a plain HOMANN, John Baptist, an eminent German
neat building, with a square tower at the west end ; geographer and mechanic, and a very excellent eno;ra-
but though It is furnished with a bell, yet, from its si- ver of maps, was born at Kamlach, a village of Suabia.
tuation below the town, its sound is so inaudible, that on the 20th of March, 1663. His parents, wlio were
it has been found necessary to summon the congrega- Catholics, intended that he should embrace the monas-
tion by a person, who suspends a pretty large one from tic life ; but having repaired at an early age to Nurem-
his neck by a leathern strap, and fixes a cushion upon berg, he became a convert to the tenets of Lutheranism,
his knee. This moveable spire walks along eliciting and devoted himself to the art of engraving, particu-
Bounds from the bell, whenever the cushioned knee larly that of maps, which he executed with a degree of
strikes the instrument. There are other three places of correctness and elegance then very uncommon. His
worship in the town, two for Roman Catholics, and one first performances of this kind gained him so great a re-
fer Protestant dissenters. putation, that he was summoned to Leipsic, where he
The spring called St Winifred's well is reckoned one was employed in engraving the maps to Cellarius' Or-
of the finest in the kingdom. It was found by one ex- bh Antiquas. On his return to Nuremberg, he under,
periment to discharge tvoenly-one Ions in a minute, and took to execute the maps to Scherer's Alias Novus,
by another 84 hogsheads. In the course of nearly two which was published at Augsburg in 1710. In tlie
miles from the source of the spring to its junction with year 170a, he established at Nuremberg a manufactory
the Chester Channel, its water tlrives one corn mill, four of maps, from which there issued successively, speci.
cotton manufactories, built in 1777, 1785, 1787, and mens to the number of two hundred. In 1719, hepub-
1790, a copper smelting-house, a brass-house, a foun- lished an yii/a« meMorf/cu*, for young persons, in eighteen
dry, a large copper smithy, a wire mill, a calamine sheets. Under the direction, and with the assistance of
calcinary, &c. The water boils up with great force into another able geographer, Doppelmayer, he also under-
a well of a polygonal shape, covered by a colonnaded took the execution of an astronomical atlas, which ap-
cupola, having its groined roof loaded with ornaments, peared, after his death, along with Doppelmayer's Ele-
It IS supposed, but without much reason, to ha(ve been ments of Astronomy, in 174''2. Besides maps, he like-
built by the Countess of Derby, mother of Henry VII, wise constructed small armillary spheres and pocket
Near the well is a chapel in the pointed style, which globes, and a very curious and ingeniously contrived
seems to have been built before the time of Richard geographical time-piece.

III. This building belongs to Mr Leo of Llanerch, The scientific and mechanical talents of Homann
and has recently been converted into a charity school, were deservedly held in high estimation ; and his merit
A precipitous hill above the church was the scite of a was not suffered to languish unrewarded. He was pa-
fortress belonging to Ranulph the third Earl of Chester, tronised by the Emperor Charles VI. who appointed
No traces of the building, however, are now to be seen, him his Majesty's geographer; and also by Peter, the
The great mining concern, called the Holywell Le- Great, of Russia. The Royal Society of Berlin admit-
vel, began in 1774, and till lately was an unprofit- ted him a member of their institution. He died in the
able concern. The level is carried horizontally for year 1724. The manufactory of maps, which he esta-
the length of a mile into the hill, and serves both as a blished at Nuremberg, subsists to this day, and is still
drain to the work, and as a canal for the delivery of the conducted under the auspices of his name.
ore. Numerous vertical shaAs have been cut from this Homann is chiefly known as an excellent engraver
horizontal archway, some of them in pursuit of the of maps ; but he likewise possessed a great deal of geo-
mineral veins, and others for the purpose of ventilating graphical and astronomical knowledge ; and with an
the mines. The products obtained from the hill are, active and enterprising spirit, he combined an inven-
1. Limestone; 2. Chertz or petrosilex, which is ground tive genius and uncommon mechanical skill. (2)
for the use of the potteries ; 3. Lead ore of two kinds, HOMBERG, William, an eminent chemist, was
via. cubic or dice ore, employed in glazing earthen born at Batavia, in tlie Island of Java, on the Sth of
■ware, and white or steel-grained ore, containing some January 1652. His father was a Saxon, who had en-
silver; 4. Calamine, or ore of zinc; 5. Blende, another tered into the Dutch service, and obtained the command
ore of zinc, called Black Jack by the miners. The of the arsenal of Batavia. Having left this settlement,
lead ore sometimes brings from thirteen to fifteen pounds and gone to Amsterdam, he sent his son to the princi-
per ton, and at other times not more than seven or pal universities in Germany and Italy, where he suc-
eight pounds. cessively pursued the studies of law, anatomy, botany.
An account of the copper and brass manufactures astronomy, and chemistry. He was admitted to the bar
of Holywell has already been given in our article at Magdeburg in 1674' ; but having become acquainted
FuNTSHiRB, vol. ix. p. 371. to which the reader is re- with Otto Guericke of that city, the celebrated inventor
ferred. of the air pump, he devoted most of his time to the acqui-
The following is the population abstract of the town sition of the sciences. He now went to the university
of Holywell for 1811: of Padua, where he studied medicine, anatomy, and bo-
tany. After visiting Rome and Bologna, where he dis-

No. of inhabited houses, 1S13 covered the method of making the Bologna stone lumi-

No. of families, 154I nous, he went through France to England, and labour-
Families employed in trade and manufactures, 752 ed for some time with our celebrated countryman Mr

Do. in agriculture, II7 Boyle. Returning to Holland, he resumed his anato-

Males, 2925 mical studies under De Graaf, and took out his medi-

Females, • 3469 cal degree at Wirtemberg. His passion for travel-

— — ling, however, prevented him from settling to the

Total population, 6394 practice of medicine. After visiting Baldwin and

Homana,
Homberg.

H O M E.

9»»

Kunkcl. and exthm^ag
fotbcir BMCboda afprepwinc

tb» minM oT Saumj. Haagur,

He iMXt nturaMl through Holland to

ot hi* chemical wcnta
>, he riaited

lia. and Sweden.
I^ria, where he
fbr tome time ; and when, at the deaire of
Ua (hther.'he was about to leave the aaetwpuBa, the
gieal Colbert made him tucfa hi^ offitr* m the name
vt^tm King, that he was induced to Mttle in Paria.
H* embraced the Catholic religion in 1 689, and in the
IMumhtg jcv he wa* dtainherited bjr hia father Tor
banttgrcnouBeed thefioth orhkaaeoten. In 1685
he again went to Rome, wfaeiv he nnctiaed medicine
fbr aome jrear* with great aveoeaa. On the 4tfa Pefam-
ur 1699, he wa* admitted a luembar ti the Acaderaj
or Sdcscea, and wa* allowed the cnwatant uie of the
iabemoty of the Acndcmj. The Doke of Orlcena, af.
tetwafik Bcgcnt of France, erected a oiagnificrat U>
beraftflvy hi 170>, and pst it under the charge of Ham-
lowed Um a peniion, and in I7<H appointed
Irat plqraician. In 1708. he marned Made-
Doifart. the daaghtrr of an cnioeBt aedioal
r; but being Batnrally of a weok cmtkBthiu,
tired onlj a few jrcaia, and wa* carried oCbj a dy-
tuatmj, to which he had been hable, ea the S4th Scp-
1715. Honbcfg waanot tfi«ancharof anjr*^
> work ; but he pKbliahwl mo Ikmtr then lot me-
Ib the Ttlww ef tlM A«dcaij ef

ben. HeaUowedl
hMhiaif

the
'At AMimiffir 1715.

tricfcjr.

See hia Eloge fai the

Hilt. p. M.

HOME. Hnar, Lord Kamw, «m ef th«
of the Cottage of Jeaike ia ScdlBid. mA «a

work, which comi«ted of a folio rolame of the Rt-
imarkaUe DteUiom of the Court of. Session, from tlie
year I"! 6 down to the period of it* publication, ap-
peared in 17S8. Mr Home's manner of pleading wa*
peculiar to himself. He never attempted to speak to
the peaatoo*, or to captirate hi* hearers by the grace* of
oratoiy ; but addreesed hinuelf *olely to the judgment
of his audience; emptying a strain of language only
a little elevated abore that of ordinary di*cour*e, which,
even br it* familiar tone and »tyle, fixed the attention
of the jud^, while it excited no suspicion of rhetorical
artilioe. It would appear, however, that hi* ability lay
mere in the devitinp; of ingeniou* arguments to sup.
port hi* own aide of the qucatioa, a* an opening or
leading coonael, than in reply ; for which he aeein* to
have wanted that ready command of copiou* elocu-
tion, which is neceeaary for extemporanrou* di*cu*Mon.
There wa* one peculiarity attending hi* mode of re-
phring which i* worthv of notice. This consisted in a
nir conceaaicn aod abandonment of all the weaker
pointa of hi* caaae. By yielding tbeae at once to his
antagoniat, be laccecded in creating a ftvourable impres-
sion of hi* own candour, and a perstiasion of the ttrength
of hi* cause ; while, at the same time, he fVustratcd all
attack on those weak parts, which might have given
matter of triumph to his opponents, and had a prrj'uli.
cial inflaancc oM the more MHid ground* of hi* plea. But
the ftatm* by which Mr Home waa principally distin-
pvirfwd aa a barrister, conaisted in the faculty which

bora ia the year Ifljgfi. Hi*
Kaokte, waa ■ gaatlaMi of aa
family, theagh of aaall fhrtaaa, ia the
wick ; hia mother waa ■
of HiiiaalaM,

He waf«dBai>d uiliilily
171*. he waa beaad by faJentaw to enend the

) the eoanty of Ba^
of Mr WiTMiiihea

of a wrter 10 the dgaeC fa Edtahargh,
atap to VkmttBAaf upea the pro>

•a a _ _ ^

a wrftar or aoBcitar beiire die

draaaastaaer, huwaim, anwwitfa tn-
hla vieWt; aad he liiflaeil to

the aiaialiidud acoiuariun ef a.writer, aad
aaalil^ hiaiiilf far Um tmdJaut ttm aJaacf. With
net vtew. he tcaalwd to aapaly, bv aaaUaaae aniKca.
tioB, the dellMto ef Ua faaperfcct edacatian : aad to ae.
if fcglj faaaaad the atady of tto aadeM aad aw-
dem kagaagaa; while, aft the aaaie thac, he
•d to aeqaira a cuaipiieiit kaaviadg* of the
Hia etteatiea aaona to hava heea pailhidarly (fiiaeced
toward* aiataahf lical hismhiAaw, fcrwhich, throagh-
oat the whole eaam ef bb tilK he nilaHiined ad*.

^^J^Jt ■ - - »^* — ^ —

la the rear I T>4, Mr
bar, wMa waa, at thai j

IT>«. Mr Hoaw waa called to the Seattkh

I period, graced with the trfMrta

faditUaela. «iie aftcrwarda roee to the fnt

fa their iiiulfaiiuii. Ahheach hia

knowledf^ aad he piainaid, fa a hMk^if..., _
talent* of an fagtiaai riaiener ; Mr Home ww net
gifted with theee ddafag power* af oratory, which
■to calcalated to faring a yoang piattilleiiei rapidly
ftMa aallee. Aceonfingty. it waa not tin after the
pMh&Mieii ef hia int work en the kw, diet he ba^
'—*'"■*■'— -•—^^tih—afpractica. That

tmtom^wfwm^

, in a very eminent degree, of striking oat

l%fata OBOO the oMat abatrnae and intricate doe-

of the law, and of iab}ectin^ to the •crutiny of

thoM ntlce and auaimi which had btcwaij «••

only flan long and inveterato oMge, having

iw aoUd fcaadetiuii fa any jaat or ratioaal principle.

In 17tt, he pahWrfted a small mhmir niMcr the title
ef giaiji aa intnl S These sub-

facta had been *uggest. (he coarse of

hie enployawnt aa a counsel in ■rvrml im|>ortant
; and thcj contribotad greatly to csubluh the
tar of the author aa a orofoand and scientific
lawvar. From tfie pniod of their publication, accord-
ingfv, Mr Home appears to have bern engaged in rooet
of ine eauaca of impoctanoe *h\ch iKTurTed in the
Court of Seerion. While oocui Jir dutira of a

laborioa* profiMaioa. however, >><. ■■ ~>t neglect the

poraaita of Cterature and science, to which hr seem* to
aava been at all time* ardently devoted ; and a conai-
datable BortSanofhia tine waa abo given to theeriWa
nMBta of aodety, in a numcroua and reapertable cirHe
of ary intanoe. He lived in habtta of intimacy with
aamy of the first literary and philoaophical character*
of the age, and (Vvquently corresponded with them ori
the •ub}ect* connected with hb avourite porsuit*.

In the year I7«l, Mr Hone married Mfai Agatha
DnBBnoad,aTonnger daagfater of Jenice Drammond*
Eeq. of Blair, m tto eoantr of Ferdi, a fadir pHiaewed
of an emcBent anderatanmng, ami an enlightened and
solid Jadgmcnt fa the uundact of lid-, with nurh Dwert-
neaa of temper, and geutkiKaa of manners. In the
eoorae of the larae year, he poblisbcd, in two vnlume*
folw. Tilt DicuumM of Iht Comrt of SeuH;» ■ In-

mUmlion to tht Prrtfiil Time, obrtdgrJ mi<: un.

4er proper Itradt, in the form o/"o uielionari^, — a work
eigttat labour, and of tne higncet utility to the profe*-
■ion of the law in

Daring the rel i 74 5- 6, the rrmnr nf j udidal

procedure, in the northern part of 1' m, wa*

mtcrmpted by the diaocdcrcd itate ot latry, and

Hrnrr.

92

HOME.

the Court of Session did not meet for a period of eleven
months. Mr Home employed that interval in various
researches connected with the history, laws, and an-
cient usages of his country, which he afterwards di-
gested into a small treatise, and published in the year
1747, under the title of Essays upon several Subjects,
concermnjr British Antiquities. These essays, although
they contain some curious and important deductions,
an<l exhibit a great deal of ingenious reasoning, are by
no means esteemed among the most valuable of the
works of their author.

We have already observed, that Mr Home's mind
•was peculiarly turned to metaphysical speculations, for
which he found leisure even amidst the pressure of his
professional employment. In the year 1751, he pub-
lished his Essays on the Principles of Morality and Na-
tural Religion. This work, in which he endeavoured
to place the great principles of morals on a firm and im-
mutable basis, unaccountably drew upon him, from
certain quarters, the reproach of scepticism and impie-
ty ; and his opinions, particularly on the abstruse ques-
tion of/rce will, were attacked with great asperity by
various writers. Some of these were of so intolerant a
spirit, that nothing less could satisfy their zeal, than
tlie interference of ecclesiastical authority, to repress
opinions which they conceived to be contrary^ to the
canons of the established church, and subversive even
of the fundamental principles of religion. To his op-
ponents, Mr Home made a formal reply, under the ti-
tle of Objections against the Essays on Morality and Na-
tural Rdigion examined. This controversy attracted
the attention of the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland j and a motion was made in the committee for
overtures, which was supposed to be indirectly levelled,
among others, against the author of the Essays. The
motion occasioned a very warm debate, but was finally
negatived. However, Mr Anderson, a clergyman, and
one of the most zealous of Mr Home's antagonists, re-
solved not to let the matter rest here. He gave in a
petition and complaint to the presbytery of Edinburgh
against the printer and publisher of the Essays on the
Principles nf Morality and Natural Religion, requiring
that the presbytery should summon them to appear be-
fore them, and declare the name of the author of that
work, in order that he might be subjected to ecclesias-
tical censure. The persons complained against appeared
by their counsel, and gave in formal defences ; but Mr
Anderson died during the course of the proceedings.
The defendants, however, waving all objection to the
want of a prosecutor, consented that the court should
give judgment on the merits of the case; which, after
undergoing some discussion, terminated in the rejection
of the complaint.

In the month of February 1 752, Mr Home was ap-
pointed one of the Judges of the Court of Session, by
the title of Lord Kames. His promotion gave general
satisfaction to the country, as his abilities and know-
ledge of the laws, no less than his integrity and moral
virtues, hafl raised him high in the public esteem. To
the discharge of his duties, as a Judge of the Supreme
Civil Court, he brought an acute understanding, an ar-
dent feeling of justice, and a perfect acquaintance with
the laws of his country ; which, amidst the variety of
pxirsuits in which his comprehensive mind had been
engaged, had always received the principal share of his
attention. His judgments, which were always formed
with deliberation, liad deservedly the greatest weight
with the Court, especially on all questions of recondite
jurisprudence. Towards the bar he uniformly con-

ducted himself with a proper courtesy and respect ; lis-
tening to the arguments of the senior counsel, who
pleaded before him, with patient attention, and ani- "^
mating the diffidence of the younger barristers by kind
indulgence and urbanity of demeanour. In his charac-
ter he occasionally disj)layed something of the hup
OTOurist ; and, even on the bench, he could not always
repress his constitutional vivacity, which sometimes
broke out in amusing sallies, when the subject of dis-
cussion led to a ludicrous train of thought, or when a
happy repartee was suggested by the wit of the coun-
sel.

A society had been instituted in Edinburgh, in the
year 1731, for the advancement of medical knowledge,
the plan of which was afterwards extended, at the sug-
gestion of the celebrated Maclaurin, to subjects of phi-
losophy and literature. It was now known by the ti-
tle of The Society for Improving Arts and Sciences, but
more generally by that of The Philosophical Society of
Edinburgh. At what period Mr Home first became a
member is uncertain; but he appears to have been
elected its president about the beginning of the year
1769; and in the volume of the Transactions of tliat
learned body, published in 1771, there are tln^e ))aper»
of his writing, viz. On the Lams of Motion ; On the Ad-
vantages of Shallow Ploughing; and. On Evaporation.
They exhibit the same ingenuity which is conspicuous
in all his productions ; but the papers an physical sub-
jects are not built on sound philosophical principles.

In the year 1 755, Lord Kames was appointed a mem-
ber of the Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of
the Fisheries, Arts, and Manufactures of Scotland ; and,
about the same period, he was chosen one of the conv
missioners for the management of the forfeited estates
annexed to the crown, of which the rents were destined
to be applied to the improvement of the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland. In the discharge of these import-
ant trusts, he was a zealous and faithful servant of the
public. He regularly attended the stated meetings of
these boards, generally officiating as chairman, and ta-
king a most active concern in all their proceedings. In
the midst of his professional and literary occupations»
he was at all times easy of access to the meanest indi-
vidual who had any application to make ; and was
ready not only to advise, but even to assist the igno-
rant and needy suitor in bringing his claims fairly into
view.

In 1757, he published The Statute Latv of Scotland
Abridged, rvith Historical Notes, and two years after-
wards he gave to the world his Historical Law Tracts,
each in one volume 8vo. The latter work lias under-
gone several editions, and stands deservedly high in the
estimation of the public. It is one of the few works
which unite law with philosophy, and the study of
hu'.nan nature ; and it has accordingly received tlie
praise, not only of juridical autliors, but of the writers
on politics and morals, both of our own and of foreign
countries. In 1760, appeared his Principles of Equity,
in which he traces historically the origin of the courts
of equity in each of the united kingdoms, and endea-
vours to ascertain those general rules by which a court
of equity ought to be governed. The active mind of
Lord Kames, hov.'ever, did not confine its efforts to
those studies and researches which were more intimate-
ly connected with his profession, but exerted its powers
in various pursuits of a generally interesting nature.
In the course of the education of his own chddren, he
was led to the composition of an elementary work
suited to the minds of young persons, and calculated at

Home,
Henrf.

H O M E.

9S

lUaty.

ooee t» ■nprare tlie nndertbuidinfr, and to cultivaU
iuat notiom of morality. ThU little work he published
m 1761, in a «roall volume under tlie title of InlrodiiC'
liom lo tie Art of Thitiki»g. It i« divided into two
par" ' '*--- '''>naar oontaiiung a Mri« of moral and pru-
de ' >mt, and the latter a rej^lar illtutration of
tlKrf.- u,^:>.iit)» 1^ ■torie* taken eithct fraea real hittory,
er ficdtioiu narratiTca.

It appean from the letters of lome of Lord Kaine»'s
CPCicapoMicnta, that he had for leveral jean meditated
an tslMWhw vark oo the principles of criticism. This
diri(pi iMaAarwarda carried into execution bjr the pub-
lication of hk Klemeal* of Cri/UUm, which first appear-
ed in the jear IT62, in three volumes Sro. In this ela-
hofale work, it waa the obiect of the author to sub^ject
the imprasaiona mada on the mind bjr the productions
af the fine arta to the standard of rcaaon, by tbcwinit.
that what is generally called taste k by no means artw-
trary, but dapentlt on certain }itincipfca or laws of the
hnaaan oonatitntion ; and that a mod tatttt conaku in
the cwnaonance of ear faelincs wito those laws.

From the period of the p^itlcation of the last now
tioned work. Lord Kama* apoears to hare derotad him-
srlf fir a few years exdMivdy to hk nmftsiionil occn-
patioaa. On the I5th of Apnl 176S, be waaappointad
one of the Latds of Jasddaty, that ia, one of the Judges
of the 11411 IB I erimiaal trib—al in Scodand. Thedu-
ti« ef tmt stertka ba condoMd ta ilisrhaiiii to the
ami of hk Kfe, wMi «|im1 iKBjanca and ability. In
A* year ITOS, be iwahrad a very lar|» addition to hk
fawoae bv the succassiim to the crtata of Blair>Dram<
aaood, which drrolrtd on hk wife by the death of her
brother. The scsaona of raeatioo wera now spent at
BlairwDranrnMod, whei* ha befn to tnenta a variety
of afcricvltaral ImfNovamaBU oa an euanded scale,
whicb, wbfle thajr srt a grant example r«» the iautatiaa
of the wakbboiirim liJholdtrs. iMTe proved of tbe
most solidasd puMiamm baneCt lo the proprietor and
hkbrira. AmaBf tbam plana of imptovemcnt was one
ofanatnrrso extraotdtnarr t- '- *)e i^ncraDy regard,
ad at fint aa cfairaarieal, bi iltnnalcly sneorcd'

ail far berood the mosl mngume « icws of its eootrirer.
We sllade to the epemiaBa camnmiKwl and earned on
by hk lordship on the mom of tCincaidine; of whidi
we shall have occmton to take sasna notin in the arti>
akMOSSb thk'worfc. MTitb them anbatantial na.
ho cmnbjnad many pbaa of embaOkh.
by tboae grart Aalana of natnral

Towafds tbe eml of tbe yaar 1785 Lord Kamm poU
Ikbod a amaO pannblat on the pragma ef tbe las ha*,
bmby ta StilmLti which tba principal ot>}ect was
to abev. tbe — paJWiKi of sneoarainng tbe cukarr of
•tt of tbe nativv growth of tbe ooantry. At the mmo
" hk kedahin avaOfam bkrnelf of a moat rxtaMivo
witb tbe pi&eqial kodboldera in Scot,
mnd. with a laa^bb seal, to stamdaia
their excitiaoa m difWng a spjrit of tadnatiT
t>>^ cattgara aod dspaadnta, by tbe mtradadion
sacnspedm of domastiL nanalactores, snited to both
■BOS. aa, witboat any conaidarable rraenee on the pvt
af the preorlftors, wooU amaCanto the candition. and
mohiply the oomfhrta, of tbe lower orders, and tbna
lay the aeNd foundttian of aa incrMsc of thrir own rew
vennea. Aipoim those patriotie plans of Mtiooal im.
urvveuM ut, in which I^ird Kancs. m a atCBBber of the
board of trustm for the encoun^gement of arts, took a
most active concern, was the great and aseful project
or a navigabk canal between tha rifcn Forth and

Clyde, which was begun in 1768, and from which,
since its completion, the internal commerce of tbe
coumry has derivetl ttie most essential l>enefit.

In the year 1766, Lord Kames tiublished his Revtark-
abU Decuiont of Ike Court q/'Seuton.j'rori 1730/0 1752.
The reports contained in this volume consist of 130
cases, comprehending tbe most important causes which
had occurml in the course of liis own practice while at
the bar.

For many years Lord Kames had been employed,
during his leisure hours, in collecting materials for a
History of ytoH. Tlie design of tliis great work, how>
ever, as at first conceived, was found to be too vast ;
and he aAerwards wisely determined to confine hu
plan within narrower limits. The work was at length
published in the year 177K under tlie t-'tle of Schetcke*
ofi' T^ ■ I of Man, in two volumes 4ta Although
put the form of separate essays or dissert**

tioos, it u iligestcd with a oonsidcrmblo d^ree of sys>
tematic reguurity, and k valuable not only from tha
great variety of important o(>jects which it embraces^
but on accoiuit of the genius and ability displayed in
their discussion.

In the year 1776, he published hk CaUlewutn Far-
mer; a work of great utihty at the period of ito publica>
tion, and which affords a singular specimen of the un-
dimiuished vigpnr of bk mind at the advanced age of
eifgfaty. Evan at tfak lato period of hu life, his coosti-
tatton MipaaiaJ to have solercd nothing from the at-
tacks of «Nd agt. There was jrti no seitsible decay of
hk mental powers ; and, what k still more extraordina-
ry, he ^Msssitd theasrae flow of animal spiriu, the
saaw gawt^ and vivacity, and the saoM ardour in the
porsuit oc knowledge, for which he bad been distin-
guistied in hk eariv years.

' In 1777, he natdiahad hk Ebuidaliont retpeclhg the
CBaius aad SUUmU Ltm ^SeoUmmi, in one volume
Svo: and ta 1780, hk Sfiect Drcitiont cfthe Court qf
Seuiam. ta otie volume folio. The Utter publication
contains S6« reports of the most important cases d4N:i.
ded by tlie court, between the yean I75S and 17G8,
and forma a sanptsoMnt to tba oaiaa rormariy pubbsbad
under tha titia of iZcmarAai^ Atsnoaa. The bat
worii of Lord Kaoms wm bk Laasr IlinU on Fduco'
lioa, pablkhad at EdtaburgB m tbe year 1781. when
theaadiorwaa ia tbaSAbyovof bkage.

AhbaiMb aaaanatly by no mwaa of a robust (Vame
oTbodv, Lard Kamea baa bitbarto enjoyed an uncom-
mon abareof good bcahb ; but in tbe bmnning of tbe
yaar 1783. Wbaa be bad nmrly completad lus 86th
yaar, be waa •staed with a dkorder of tbe bowels,
wbkb. bmogatlaadad witbnopata. gavafafao. <fara
eaaadaiabia tiBM^ vaty btda aoprdienaioa. Ftadtag,
bowavar, after aaaw Bwaiha, that tha ttismic had aat
yielded to madidne or mfiamt, be began to regard It
as likely to terminate wally. Durinf^ the summer
term ef thevear above mentioned, be regularly attend-
ed to hk omnal duty in the couita of session and jua-
tidarr. and at the end of the term, he went, as usual,
with nis family to Blair- Drummond. He also attend-
ed the autumn circuit ; but, on his return, hi% strength
decrtaaed daily, although the serenity and rbaiifidniia
of hk temper remained unabated. He left Blair- Drum-
mood ta the bc;i^taning of November, and continued,
lor some httle tmte. to attend the meetings of tlie court
of scasion ; bat he soon becam* aeaaibh! that hk
strvngth was not equal to the effort. On the Ust day
of hk attendance, be took a separate and aflectiooato
farewell of each of hk brethren. He tur» ivcd that pe-

94

HOME.

Home,
Heory.

riod only about eight days, and died on the 27th of
December 1 782, in the 87th year of his age.

In his person. Lord Kames was very tall, and of a
thin and slender form. His countenance was animated,
and strongly marked with the features of intelligence
and benignitj'. At every period of his life he had
a high relish for the pleasures of society ; and it
was usual for small and select parties to meet at his
house in the evenings, during the winter and sum-
mer sessions, without invitation. In these parties, the
discussion of literary topics was agreeably blended
■with innocent sallies of mirth and pleasantry ; and
the graver conversation of a Smith, a Blair, and a
Fergusson, was relieved or enlivened by the native
wit and polished manners of a Cullen, or the sprightly
fancy and whimsical eccentricity of a Boswell. The
artless and ingenuous disposition of Lord Kames
led him, at all times, to express his feelings and opi-
nions without reserve or disguise ; and this propensity,
combined with a certain humorous playfulness of man-
ner, might frequently convey to strangers the unfa-
vourable idea of a bluntness and levity, derogatory
from that dignity and attention to decorum, which one
so naturally associates with talents and eminence. But
this impression was soon effaced by that vigour of in-
tellect, that frankness, integrity, and candour, which
his conversation never failed to display. He engaged
with interest in the discussion of almost every topic
that occurred, whether of ordinary life, literature, or
science ; and although naturally communicative, he
was always as ready to listen to the opinions of others
as to deliver his own sentiments. To the introduc-
tion of political subjects, however, in common conver-
sation, he had a strong dislike ; and when the conver-
sation happened to take that turn, he either took no
part in it, or endeavoured to divert it by some timely
J)leasantry, or guide it with address into a .different
channel.

To the distinguishing features of Lord Kames* cha-
racter as a lawyer, a judge, an author, and a man, we
have had frequent occasion to allude in the course of
the preceding narrative. He certainly contributed
more than any other individual, to explain, Ulustrate,
and define the origin, progress, and character of the
laws and institutions of his country ; his unwearied at-
tention to agriculture and ii,tern£j improvement, and
his zealous encouragement of every useful project, bear
sufficient testimony to his public spirit ; and, however
widely he might occasionally err in his speculations on
subjects of strict science, his many and valuable publi-
cations on literary and philosophical subjcct.s, will
prove a lasting monument of lis genius and industry.
See Lord Woodhouselce's Memoirs of the Life and
Writings of Lord Kames. I'he writer of this article has
also been favoured with a perusal of th^MSS. of John
Ramsay, Esq. of Ochtertyre, in which there are' many
interesting particulars i'.histrative of the characters of
Lord Kames and other individuals, whose talents con-
tributed to elevate the lilt rary reputation of their na-
tive country during the eighteenth century, (i)

HOME, John, a clergyman of the church of Scot-
land, but best known' to the public as author of one of
the most classical tragedies in the English language,
was a descendant of one of the ancestors of the Earl of
Honie. It was once reported, that he had some pre-
tensions to the title o.*" the Earl of Dunbar, but upon

what grounds we have never beeri able to learn. His
father was clerk, or, as it might be termed in England,
recorder of the town of Leith.* Our poet was born at
Leith in September 1722. He received the elementary
part of his education at the parish-school of his native
place ; after which he went to the university of Edin-
burgh, and there went through the customary course
of the languages and philosophy with the reputation of
a respectable and diligent student. At the university
he was the intimate companion of several of those emi-
nent men, who, like himself, afterwards contributed so
highly to raise the literary reputation of Scotland about
the middle of the eighteenth century. Among these
were Drs Robertson and Blair, and Professor Adam
Ferguson. The circle of his intimate friendship after-
wards included David Hume, and Lord Kames. Be-
ing educated for the church, he had passed through
the divinity-hall, and was about to enter upon the du-
ties of the clerical profession, when he was suddenly
called to forsake his studies by the rebellion that broke
out in Scotland in the year 1745. On the approach of
the rebels, the citizens of Edinburgh assembled, and
formed themselves into an association for the support
of their sovereign, and the defence of the city ; and in
this association Mr Home was appointed to be lieute-
nant of a company of volunteers. In the first crisis of
alarm, it became a question among those who had ta-
ken up arms, whether they should wait for the approach
of the rebels within their walls, or march out to meet
them, and act with the king's army. Mr Home, with
the more active spirits, was in favour of the latter plan ;
and while the bulk of the volunteers remained in the
Scottish capital, he was one of a much smaller number
who solicited and obtained permission to follow the
army of Hawley into the field. At the unfortunate
battle of Falkirk, he was taken prisoner by a party of
Prince Charles's troops, and was for some time confined
a prisoner in the castle of Downe. From thence, how-
ever, he soon afterwards contrived to effect his escape
and public tranquillity having been restored by the
victory of Culloden, he resumed his studies, and was
licensed to preach. In the same year, 1746, he was
presented to the living of Atholstaneford, in the county
of East Lothian. It gives a poetical interest to the
name of this parish, that it had successively for clergy-
men two poets of respectal)le names, Mr Home hav-
ing succeeded in that living to Blair, the author of The
Gram. In this retired situation, however, we cannot
suppose the dramatic muse of Mr Home to have found
herself so congenially situated as the more sombrous
genius of his predecessor. Accustomed to the sweets
of literary society, and elegant Jti his pursuits, he pro-
bably felt the life and duties of a country parish priest
far from being delightful. To a mind teeming -svith
dramatic conceptions, the offices of visiting, catechising,
and spiritual rebuking, must have been somewhat irk-
some. He appears, however, to have sometimes taken
the recreation of a visit to England ; and on one of
those occasions, he met with Collins the poet, whose
mind immediately felt a pleasing congeniality with that
of Home. In his Ode on the Superstitions of the High'
lands, we have almost the only record that Collins has
left of his personal friendship, when he says.

Go not regardless while these numbers boast
My short-liv'd bliss ; forget my social name.

Home,
John.

• It should be observed, however, that the English recorder's office U of higher dignity than that of the Scottish clerk, who doe*
not sit, like the fomier, on capital cases.

H O M E.

95

iBMlkylMMMrip

Imw, m Ik* HiXkcni eoMI,
Ithi

Th« tragcdj of DtnAa, tiMOfffa the fnt plaj of ^fr
Home'* that was liiuBjint npon Um at^e, was not the
Bnt of bii wpoaition. He had bafoi* written /Igu,
a tnfiwiy, of which we (hall have occMion to apeak

The plot of the tragedy of Doqglaa, aa few
win probably need to be told, waa aaacalad by the
ancient ballad of GiU or Child Morrtce^cwii^ a part
of that beautiful old mhi^ suii^ by a lady oa* sraning
after a aupper party in Edinburgh, Mr HoMM icnark-
■d. that be tfaoogbt it cnmaiocd the gcrma of a tragv
% ; and tcit mod laadt g«ad hia apinioa, by com.
Miring to ibiMiriai tlw atoey. DoagbsiBMbiufifit

mi
th«

OB tlw EJiiibufgb thaatre, which waa then
iditian, in the yMr 17^ When
the MS. they readily aoce|>ted
and prvpaicd for giving it a
■I. The tranaaction, however,
coeDingtothclbiawledgeafthcaldaraorthe kirk, they,
in their great acal, fin* iMMoalntcd with the author
OB tba heiwaaa ain ha waa emtmilAtg. Failing in thia
fiMaamiaBca. thqr •adaaroandtalarnfy the perfimn-
era ftoa nptMBdaf it ; but with no batter aocwiifc
Aathor ana artonnaMineJ equally iacMfifible, and
■ nlTiiiinnrn-^ tat tha inanaad tlitn to do^bM
tkMHlM to oaal/nd ftr aw diaoMEAr frr tha hU*
ally, not only thair diMbodiat poi^ bM ONB awh of
hfa ckrkal friMda oa had bMD wkkodanoigktogo
to aaa hia piaao pwftiwaJ at thoHliatti. hipiiiMiu
and adf tftlaaaiinK tkay ttiaiidid thair anallmoaa
M^aallhaaa iayltaMBla of SMan. thaactan, who had
lad Mda. or at iMt abattad in Ua waoimku^ tba
loat ahoap of dkair tack. The ptaabytety aT Edin.
unigli Bonnanan an aMManwcn ana canvm
atapidaya, wrhMi wna otdHad to bo raad
M^ka wfdrin Ihair banndi, in a Suiday
In dda piirl— otfan, thara waa no ■intiair of Mr
IIoBM ar fab pbT. thongh it waa evidantly
that thia aphitaal artilk^ of abaeleta laws
prajndieaa vara levelted. To avoid a Ibra
fraa dto ckandl, Mr Hoane. in 17^7. rad^
iag;, and with it tha inrlwiiitinal imfcaiiiin. and w«ra
ftr trar after a lay habk. Wwaii' m tha Paritena af
FiiglniMdlhaftnBlHih Calihiiita adght hara bam
hdfa «Mvy baftm. thia e}octiaa of aa aniabla and
it;iiiM|iHiliiil cfa^prwan ftow AaSeottiah Khfc. fcr t>a
CMM Of wnung a tiagody, wnkn did na
fniaa of AoMdan, aowilad Maoag iha

ZaBtha

lind.a
atthaabamdilTofifao pm

S happily ia saw ftr «
af itialobalbondlB

■By in Bm.
I at tho i^Jikieah Md fUrab
' a. That laavnorhi.
: : wa baUava tha iait
I theartida Hona hi tho Bio.
B ilihiiil PirtiawwafMr A. Ctihiw^ tko mflor of

whfahaWldagiaialyJiMiaathatiiit afMrWanw

lohaoabaifioat,rioBathariiiltliir i llawaaftho
Kirk afWridwllwi— ni aiji pliji. Ifthewritar

Spain, baaui^aqpMwilh anaTjMdeo in •mar of
tha bomhtg <^M^aB tha gninadi af the ascant

waw fcr aver beond to Mow ^adMdkM* af print!

aadi aa obmbIo eTdMed kartOly to tho OBWo of It.
»— to" atanda alaaa: Ar pawltii toitva aaaat go
>Mktotinw»af PXifaiBnandriBpifji. ItOMyrcmind
m aftho pmaortion tt Achylaa. fa rrniiianii of

n priests, or of the influ-
ence of the monk* in Spain, when neither tlie pation-
age even of Philip IV. nor the orlhoiloxy of I^opc tie
Vega'a worka, were sufficient to screen him from the
pertonal viralence of the ecclesiastics. At no very dis-
tant period, indeed, during an epidemical disorder, the
inhabitants of Seville renounced the amusement of the
theatre, as the surest mode of averting Divine ven-
geance. To return, however, to our author, his tra-
gedy of Douglas was extolled, on its first appearance,
by the litarary circles of the North, in terms that wera
perhape rather unqualified. David Hume gave it as hit
opinien. that it was one of the most interesting and pa-
thatic piarw ercrashibited on any theatre; he even gave
it a preference to the Mrrope of Maffei. and that of Vol-
taire. Tiie rest of the philosopher's panegyric on our au-
thor, in which ha allodad to Shakespeare, may. for the
credit of hia taala, ba laft onqootcd. The poet Gray, in
one of hia lettcn to a friend, renders an homage to the
play of Doujriaa, that is perhaps not much Icaaened by his
ftatidioni aOaaion to itt dafects. " I am greatly struck,"
haaaya. " with thatnwedy of Douglaa, though it has in-
finita fanka. The aotnor aaoma to me to have retrieved
the troa hugnaga of the ttage, which Iiad t>ern lort
fcr tlMoa handiad vaara ; and there is one scene l>e-
twaan Matilda ana the old peasant, thnt strikes me
bBad to aO ito^afccta.' Jadcaan. in his Huiory of tho
AoMmA Stagt, infimaa oa, that when this tragedy waa
ctiginally pradooed in Edinburgh, the title of the be-
laina waa Ladjr Barnard. The alteratioo to Lady Ran-
dolph waa Baoa an its batng tranaplantad to London
lu auecoaa at tho Bdfaibargfa I

tho London

theatre indaoed Mr Home
inagers, where, notwith-

ito riling oalahrity, and all the influence used
in ka finwnr, k waa lafaatd by Mr Gairick. Mr Rich,
howavtr, aceaplad it, af>d k was acted for the fim
tioM at Covont GovdiBi, March 14. 1757. with aome
apalaiiae. ^•' 't tto means such as indicated the futura
cailblilj %Tas to obtain.

On rotguiK^ iui living, Mr Honia repaired lo Eii|^
land, whan the munificent patronaga and omoBUttiiw
Waiwhtip af the Earl of Bute made him ample aroen£
fcr tho ahandoBBent of his profcniun. Ix>rd Bute
having boeoBM Int miaiotcr oa the acccasioa of hia
preaaat nanaMy, appainlad him m Match 1 7^^ a com-
■iarfaarr nr airk aad twooodad aaaaaeii, and for tho
odlaQgaaf priaaaafaofmr; and in tho nest month
of iIm mmmymt, ho waa nnaahiatirl pubiu lator of tho
Soaldk piliiiigia at Cauysaia b gaaland. From tha
poriodof tlia oihfciticaaf Doaglaa, down to tho year
ITTS, Mr Hoflw hraifht fva othar tragedies bafcre
tho pahlie. Of AoM^ J§jU, aa haa been already mcn-
tiaaad, had baaa OMnaaad bafcra that of Douglaa.
Mr Ganiak hod fcnoarly rcAMod thia jpiaoa aa well as
Ooagiaat #ot w k wm now Baniidwahly altatcd, and
thoaatk«^rmtalaan aatabliaiiod, tha aaanagcr braugfat
k fcrwaid ^ Drary Lane in I7M. Tho play iafiwnd-
Spartan history. It is prrtandad that
pt up in the character of Agia a con-
tha wiifcilaoii of Oiarlaa tha Pint;
and tha ignrHita fatnnpactaf tiwcanductaf the ScoU
tewarda their ameraign. waa cfaaritahfy ascribed by tha
conjactuna of Engtiab critadaa to dio author's vindic-
tive fcalin|a towarda Ua eaanlryaan. The alloaion
waa in all orofaabilitjr ailhar caaoal or rroaffinary—
tlia impotod motiva ia ineonaietcnt with all that ia
known of the charaitar of Home. Agia was cer-
uinly heard with inpaftiality, and even with that
partial diapoattion which tho aatlier of Douglas bad •

K nwwBQ y t^rwry
od on a ila^ in Spa
tho oathor Imm k^
tinoad aDMiaa to tl

Horns,

Julin.

96

HOME.

tfome, right to expect. It had tlie additional advantage of
John. fTood acting, and of two solemn musical processions.
"'"V"^ But the intrinsic merit of the piece could not secure to
it a lastinjf pojiularity. On perusing it, the poet Gray
writes this melancholy sentence to Dr Warton. ^' I cry
to tliink that it should be by the author of Doufrlss.
Why, it is all modern Greek. The story is an antique
statue, painted white and red, frigid, and dressed in a
negligee, made by a mantuamaker of Yorkshire." Mr
Home's third tragedy was the Siege of Aquilda. It
was acted witli indificrent success at Drury Lane, in
1 "60. From the title, we should expect, that the au-
thor would ha\e adhered, with general fidelity, to the
circumstances, as they are recorded in history, of the de-
fence of that city by the legions of Gordianus, against
thi- gigantic tyrant Maximin ; but, in reality, the inci-
dents of the play agree much nearer with the history of
the Siege of Berwick, defended by Seton against the
arms of Edward III.; and it was conjectured, with
6ome appearance of plausibility, that Mr Home had
received his first hint from the latter story ; but dislik-
ing to bring Edward the Third before an English au-
dience, in the light of a brutal tyrant, in which the
siege of Berwick too strongly exhibited him, he thought
proper to preserve the circumstances only under the
disguise of more ancient names. This play is regular
in its structure, and the language in some passages is
fine; but, on the whole, the incidents are too lew, the
distress too unvaried, and the catastrophe too clearly
anticipated. Mr Home's muse cannot be said to have
prospered beyond the time when she was rich enough
to lend images to Oisian. The shrieking of the spirit
of the waters was an admired expression in the de-
scription of the tempestuous night in Douglas, which
seems to anticipate much of the spiritual imagery of
Macpherson. Gray the poet puts a query in one of his
■letters, whether Home borrowed this from Macpherson,
■or Macpherson from Home. Without pretending to
enter on the wider question of Ossian's authenticity, we
shall only notice that the play of Douglas appeared
some years earlier than the fragments ascribed to Os-
«ian. The latter, as we have seen, was acted in 1 757 ;
Macpherson did not come before tlic world till 1 760. By
the Fatal Discovery, Mr Home's next tragedy, it would
eeem that our author was willing to be reimbursed for
whatever hints of fancy he had lent to the Gaelic muse,
and accordingly he supplied himself in this piece with
much of the lamed phraseology of Fingal. But what-
ever might be the real demerits of the Fatal Discovery,
the London public seems not to have been disposed to
receive it with an equitable judgment. To such a
height, we are told in the Biogrri pliia Dramatica, had
party prejudice risen against Mr Home, on account of
Iiis enjoying the patronage of the Earl of Bute, that it
was found necessary to conceal the author's name du-
ring the first nights of its representation ; and, after
the twelfth night, Mr Garrick was threatened with ha-
ving his house burnt down if he continued it : an in-
junction with which the managers thought it advisable
to comply. Alonzo, Mr Home's next tragedy, was
more successful than any other of his productions,
Dounlas alone excepted. It bad a considerable run on
its first appearance, and added much to the rising repu-
tation of 13arry as an actor ; but it never obtained the
rank of what is called a slock play, nor was afterwards
performed, except at provincial theatres. The language
■of the tragedy of Alonzo possesses considerable force
and purity, though the cadence of its versification is
like all the blank verse of that period, too little varied in

the pauses, and monotonously concludes the rhythm
with every line. The story is also romantic and lucid-
ly brought out, but it is rather too much like an echo '
of Douglas. Omiisinda brings us back Lady Randolph.
She is not indeed a widow ; but has been forsaken for
eighteen j'ears by the husband of her early love, who
liad gronndlessly suspected her virtue. They had mar-
ried unknown to her father, and their meetings were
in a solitary place ; where a confidential servant, in or-
der to give the semblance of protection to Ormisinda,
assumed the plume and vesture of a brother. Deceived
by this appearance, Alonzo had abandoned her, wan-
dered in foreign countries, and returned only in dis-
guise to fight with the Moors in behalf of Spain. In
his absence Ormisinda has secretly reared his son at a
distance from her, and unconscious of his birth. Like
Douglas, he bursts from obscurity into martial reputa-
tion ; and offers to become her champion without know-
ing that she is his parent. Alonzo conquers the Moor-
ish champion, throws off his disgui.-^e, declares his mar-
riage with her from whom he has been eighteen years
separated, and, in a scene which is pretty striking, de-
mands, as the reward of his services, that the king shall
sentence her, his own daughter, to die. The conscious
innocence of Ormisinda, — the agony of her wrongs,—
the bursts of her affection towards Alonzo, — and her
maternal feelings at the sight of her boy rushing to
combat with his unknown father, — compose a strong
situation of terror and pity ; and the moment when she
throws herself between their swords, is one of rivet-
ting interest. It may be questioned, however, if the
effect would not have been much better had the termi-
nation been fortunate. In plots where a happy denoue-
ment would not be merely satisfactory, but joyous and
exultingly triumphant, the policy of killing the tragic
victims is very doubtful. Ormisinda was not like La-
dy Randolph, who, though her son was restored, had
only a second and apparently not a distractedly beloved
lord to be reconciled with ; she had all the pledges of
filial, maternal, and conjugal love to redeem, as well as
honour, and the inheritance of a throne ; and the cata-
strophe that severs her from all those blessings, seems
to depend more on the tragical resolution of the poet,
than on that overawing ya/a//(y which gives dignity to
dramatic slavglilcr.

Alfred, our author's last tragedy, was acted in Covent
Garden in 1778, but was only performed for three
nights.

It is impossible to follow this detail of Mr Home's
dramatic career, without a melancholy reflection on the
power of genius itself being included in the sentence
of mutability which is passed on all earthly blessings.
With Alfred he took his leave of the stage, and retired
to Scotland, where he continued to reside during the
greater part of his remaining life. In 1778, when the
late Duke of Buccleugh raised a regiment, under the
name of Fencibles, Mr Home received a captain's com-
mission, which he held till the peace. A few years be-
fore his death, ho published the Hislnry of the Rebel-
linn in Scotland in 1 74 5 : a work of which great expec-
tations were formed ; but whether he delayed it until
his powers of mind had lost their vigour, for he was
now seventy-eight, or did not feel himself at libertj' to
use all his materials, the public was not satisfied. For
a considerable time before his death his mental facul-
ties were impaired, and his health was much affected
by a dangerous fall from his hotse. He died at Mer-
chiston house, on the 4th September 1&08, at the ad.
vanced age of eighty-five, (n)

H«mc,
Julin.

HOMER.

97

lloiBCT. HOMER, (tbcGrCdan poet.) Without leaning; to

v^"" the £uth of iImw wiwhave fknied the rxi^tmceoT Ho-

mcr, we cmumM aroid noticini; the mnarkable circum-

•tatice of bw OMleBce having; been called in question.

Both lcami*|( and in^nuity have been employed in

fj«,.yi.,g to prove, that neither the Iliad nor the O-

Swcre the prodactiaB of a nof le K^niu*, but cotn-
bjr the rhapindiaf% who rcoled thoae poemt in
Bd jparu; and that the oaoM vt Homar, which.
iD Urn EaUan dialect aT Grwk. aicnifiaa " hUod," wa*
•khar applied to mmm pmomgr wholly ftodful, or,
bjr way of ewiiwir% to aaaao atroUii^ ded«Bwr of
the Iliad, who mmy hmn amoutcd parta at the poean,
bat caBBOt be aappoaed to be the author of the whole.
It maj acam • panMOBieal way of annihilating an indi-
viihMi to aaaJbply hi* euatcnce ; but yet, by proving
y of Heown, if mcb a thing ooukl be ptovea.
» Ow dBf^aMhorarUw Iliad woald be
i th* npatatign of a aacred ttama would (all
1 itoloiaof muiy. Aaniaa of Vilarba pretaoda to

e' re the — thority of Aichilacfaua. an author to whan
aaeribea the aaeat mnoie antitjuity. fur the exiatenoe
•f oigbt di&rcnl aathota of the Iliad, among wbotB
are gravely ragiaterad Aoelle* the paialer, «id PhiihaB
the atatnaiy. Bat lor tarn eontan oC thoae who otay
feel alMTHMd at the thfwMnad iliwmLMMMiit of the
Ha—ir eMatonce, it muuH be aairiwiaii that thia Aiw
aiaa of Vitorba, who waa a DowniBMi friar, and aM»
IV of theaacvMl palMO Hndar Pope Atcsandcr VI., waa
aa iwp«t«ir who had sot even tkill to palm upon the
werU the MS. pege of thia OMiant Anhifaidwa. which
heprrtandcd to fad, and atwda upaa neovd to OBe af
the aoet impttdaBt and clearly eonvktod of liienry
livMra. Tha heak, which he oallcd the GwMiwt B*.
■aMaef SaMBDiMhaaMaMlfcob ftc bnMchlkiathe
•MM Medaaef MMaliaBlhalMmMd totooyoMMMr
Ittimd htm bJefflnkMyn M8S.. or - r^
Piahartaa ftaa hta csecrahia additioM t. uu.

By br the aart fcr«idableopponeBt et the unity of
the author of the lli«l ia the laaroed GerBiaa Prate-
•or Wolf, who aHHnaaa Honar to be cither m

narjf bcia«,«r,ataHaal,oaeaf theaarlie* oftherkW'
MdMt». Ib the worka which he prefaed to the worn

> which he ofefaed to the W4
taf Honcr and the tkaaandeiv then at*
i &lie iafetenoaa, ded«cad froai '■^-''^•V
with a boldnaM that bu|^
I eapedad tnm a writer who
' to be above all
aad who iwadietad that do Gradaa
tack it with inpaaicy.

Id ofptoiiMB to all aMptkiaa nyudinK IIo«n«r.

tin a^im that the aettUd aad pr*>

; halitf af aatiquity w not to be bmkU IMKti'm

^BMtien. It •• true that Hoacr-a birth place.

aa wall aa hi* age, are diaputad, but each

arr Bot apt to be atanod about oumMy baii«a. Iti

It aoillMalfiuBaaaH

I to aay, that a poet
if he hed be« the ackaowlodged aBlher of the Ili«l|
"*"•* *"r-T htw kanwn to hii own riieinpiaBiiia On-
ly a r«w acadavMl aBoodotaa af JShahaaprf himclf fave
readied the praatBt day. lBaa^(% each aa the pnheble
ageof HoBW, hadamnof gnHaaa bettve^ceiT
fadJBg caw<a»p«rary Mfiyaliii? "Tim MiMJiif
waa boriad. all that OBaU be told a/ hia^ iathei^
MTiption upoD hia tomb, waa, " iirre liae Philip Maa-
MBOtr, a Mrangcr." To adduce aU the prao& tiatt
CDold be jciven of vrcat poeta baia^ Bisected by their

i be given of great pacta
eoBHtopararica, woald nnhaw
ry cT the gmtar part of thoiw

VOL. XI. FART I.

nnbappily be to write the hiato-
rthoiw In I

of narratives that exceed the accustomctl phenomena of
nature, we cannot be sufficiently cautious of makinc
the creed of a peat age the standard of our own belief.
But tradition that is fiee from tlie marvellous, is fairly
entitled to confidence, and the tradition which asaigns
a single author to the Iliad, a tradition which Lycur-
gus and Aristotle believed, has surely nothing in it so
incredible aa that a work, so remarkable fur simplicity
of daaign, ahould have been the work of turtuituus and
focoeaaive cooipoacn. Great works of science may,
indeed, be thus built up by aocuroulation, but great
poem4 and picture* are not usually constructed by a
multiplicity of artists. Nor, if the Iliad had bern the
work of awxesaive rhapaodista, i« it easy to cunctive by
what poetical effort of modesty those authors suppres-
sed their respective rights upon the gratitude and ad-
miration of posterity.

W't must distinguish, however, between tlie credit
that is due to the general trailition of 1 lomer having
been a wandering reciter of hia own poetrj-, and the
more specific iacta that are pretended to be given as the
history of his life. The BX«t anrirnt work of this kind
is the Ufe of Hotner attributed to Herodotus. Whether
this be the genuine production of Herodotus, we are
tmr from pretending to decide. The opinion of Pro-
fessor Hevne, which was apt to be deliberately form-
ed, is untavoorable to ita authenticity, as he pronoun-
oaa it impnsaibic to aacertain eitlier the a^^ or country
of HoBicr. The learned V'oaaius also rejected its au-
thority on the graand, that bo writer makes mention of
the work previoaa to Stephen of Bysantium, and 8ui-
das. This aigaaicat. though it comes from a great
Baate, is oartamly not quite conclusive. By (ar the
most iaaportaBt oMectioa to it is the different cal-
cwlafiooa of cfaranolqgy exhibited in Herodotus the
hialoriaB of Groeor, and the Hcrxidotus to whom this
life at Haaaar ia aiagDod. The (anncr, in his Eu-
terpe, speaka athivaaaa aa poatorior to HoBier by only
400 yean ; while the latter compute* a period of 6SS
years, and the expedition of Xerxes across the I IdlB>
ipoot. a diflercnoe of aearly 200 years. On this ao-
eeant, EustatUua wiihaa to •■shrn the life of Homer to
lolhrr llerodotaa, swmamfd Olophyscius, instead of
the historian of Halicamasaoa. Admitting the above
ekjectinne ia their full force, it cannot be aflinncd that
Ihqr aBoaBl to a daoMOstration of the biography itaelf
hOTw either aparioa^ or fiwight with internal marks
at mtiliiiiiit On the eaatrwr. tite birtli-place, which
kcivaa to the aathor of the luad, oorreaponda with an
faiuraaee bmiC piaaiflily drawn fa^ an eiuightancd tr»-
vellcr from the poet's desct^itiaBa at external nature,
that he paints ihiem with the Tcry drcumslancn that
Would occur to a native of Chios or Smyrna. If Ho-
mer was bum st the latter place, the vianity of Hero-
dotoa's bath-place, would naturally make him anxious
to ooUoct every traditioo respecting him ; snd in the
wandering Ufe and disaslraas royufn which those tra-
dilions deacribr, there is every thing which the state
of sodcljV IB such an age renders iirottable. It cannot
wdl be doabted that the author of the Iliad and the ()-
dysscy was a traveller, aa they art both the evident off-
spring of a mind which had ooBtcmplated n.iture and
human life in a full variety of aspect and manners, <uid
atatm who had felt much from the opposite di*poai>
tions of good and bad in his own spcaea ; who, ac-
oprdi-g to the drcuB-ancto then existing in society.

Hnmcr.

" Walk*4la
FdlsUM*

psiksTkai

sa4lo sD

If

m

HOME R.

Ifomer.

Doth now, will ever, that experience yield.
Which his own genius only could acquire."

Akensidk, Intcriptionfar the Bu»i of Shakoptare.

Our ingenious countryman Wood • had a higher
opinion of the authority of the work in question ; and
although some allowance may b« made for the gratifi-
cation of the traveller, in finding that theory respecting
Homer's history, which he had himself so plausibly de-
duced from his landscapes and similes, confirmed by a
work ascribed to so venerable a name as that of Hero-
dotus, yet Woo<rs remarks are worth attending to : " It
may be here requisite," he says (p. 1 89, Essay on Ho-
mer, ) " that I take some notice of the ancient life of
Homer, handed down to us, and ascribed to Herodotus.
The life of Homer is supposed by several not to be the
genuine production of that historian. As it is impossible
to imagine a collection of circumstances which have
less the appearance of fiction, I do not see why we
should not suppose that this was the last and most pro-
bable account that the historian could get. As for
the observation that they belong to the lowest sphere
of life, I fear it is suggested by modem distinctions of
rank unknown in those times. Wlien we are told, by
way of depreciating this written life, that it is conduct-
ed with the spirit of a grammarian ; that there is no-
thing in it above the life which a grammarian might
lead himself; nay, that it is such a one as they com-
monly do lead, the highest stage of which is to be mas-
ter of a school, we are treated with objections which
arise much more out of a knowledge of modern than
ancient times. The character of a grammarian was
unknown, not only to Homer, but to Herodotus ; and
■when it did appear, was much more respectable than
of late, when, by an easy transition, it is connected
with the name of schoolmaster, as in the present case,
and conveys very false ideas of the state of knowledge
and learning. Of the same sort is the stricture upon
the extempore verses of this treatise, which, far from
being an argument against it, 1 take to be the most
genuine mark of the age to which it pretends. When,
in a written composition, the distinction of prose and
verse was of a short standing, what we here call extem-
pore verses, which are so' often interspersed in the
works of Herodotus, and the oldest of the Greek wri-
ters, I suppose to have been quotations from that pe-
riod of knowledge previous to the common use of wri-
ting, when prose was confined to conversations, and all
compositions were in metre, that they might be more
easily remembered." In this life of Homer, attributed
to Herodotus, the name of the poet's mother is said to
have been Critheis, a native of Smyrna : he was the
offspring of illegitimate love.

" No sickly fruit of faint compliance, he
Stampt in the mint of Nature's eestacy."

Sivioi.

Critheis had been left an orphan. Her tutor, whose
uame was Cleanax, having disgraced her for her frail-
ty, she was obliged to fly from her native place, and,
after wandering for some time, arrived at the banks of
the river Meles. There she was delivered of the in-
fant, who, from the place of his birth, was called Me-
lesigenes, a name which he bore till it was changed to
Homer after his blindness. Phemius, an inhabitant
of Smyrna, who taught music, took the unfortunate

mother into his house, married her, and adopted the
child Melesigenes. The youth for some time assisted
them in the school of music, but after their death was
seized with a desire of seeing foreign countries, and
embarked with a Phenician shipmaster. Among
other places, he arrived at Ithaca, where he learnt the
adventures of Ulysses ; but his stay was unfortunately
prolonged till he was struck with ophthalmia, which
the ignorance of a pretender to the healing art soon
made incurable. Already he had been a poet, and
he now consoled his blindness by composing the Iliad.
With this treasure in his memory, he wandered from
place to place, and subsisted by reciting it. Universal
tradition thus exhibits to us the greatest genius of an-
tiquity as wandering about in blindness, and supported
by the spontaneous kindness of those whom he visited.
But the idea of such mendicity must not be confound-
ed with the repulsive and squalid associations which
the word beggary brings to the mind in our own arti-
ficial state of society, when disgrace covers the supplicant,
and when the feeling of compassion carries contempt,
and not kindness, along with it. In simple times, the
traveller went abroad, and sought protection and food
with the assurance, that, whenever he saw the human
countenance, he should meet with the natural charity
of the human heart. He made his way with confi-
dence, for hospitality was the virtue and the point of
honour of primeval society. A picture of such hospita-
lity is given in the Odyssey, when Mentor and Telema-
chus arrive at the dominions of Nestor. The King, who
knows nothing of the visitants, invites them to the
royal table, and, not until he has feasted them, puts
the question, " Strangers, ivhat are you ?" But Ho-
mer did not visit foreign countries with merely the
common claims to hospitality, religiously resjiected as
those claims were sure to be. He travelled in the
character of bard and reciter, of which an image was
renewed in modem Europe among the minstrels and
the troubadours. Of the latter description of poets,
we know that many held an honourable place at the
most splendid courts, were the inmates of palaces, and
the suitors of noble dames. The Greek itinerant bard,
in times when books and writing were unknown, must
have been a character not coldly respected as a stran-
ger, but esteemed and beloved for his powers of enter-
tainment. Poetry was then not only the ornament of
sentiment and beautiful fiction, but embraced all that
was the mental amusement, and all that could be called
the knowledge of mankind. It taught them what they
believed to be their history ; celebrated their mytholo-
gy ; gave them romantic conceptions of the past and
the present world ; and gave additional pleasure to the
heart, by the charm which it afforded to the ear. Such
was the profession of the ancient poet ; but which, ne-
vertheless, though immeasurably removed above the
contempt of contemporary society, must have been ex-
posed to many incidental calamities. The very virtue
of hospitality arose out of a state of society, that render-
ed travelling and navigation fatiguing and perilous.
When the poet could only recite his works, the ho-
nours and caresses due to genius and originality alone
might often be lavished on the least inspired of the
profession, who drew their stores of entertainment from
a memory tenacious of the compositions of others ; and
hospitable as the times might be, the general partia-
lity of the undistinguishing multitude, for impudence
and flattery, might often favour the mere pretenders to

Homer.

Etiay on llomtr.

HOME R.

99

poetry, while the lofty mind of th« tnie poet could not
ttuop to CMiva« for popularity. — In the life of (lomer,
alrvAdy mmtkitH. we find the prince of poeu encoun-
taring adiwiity >» many ■hapee. At aeveral pUoe* it
talk M of hie appljing to the rulen of the itaU ibr
t at toe public expcnce, and pranicing to

I their hi<tory by hia oonpoatiaaa. If the

' of the life, whoever he waa, cuntrivwl thoee tra-
, it ia ^iPgnUr that be haa tuld by aatidpatiun a
tfory a* aearly nMMfalBW dw loitunce cf Taaao and of
DfjMcn. Aim* tlw PfiyMm it ia alao related, Uut
• Bet&liMU bratbiB- poet, Tbcrtcndea, after having re>
oaivad HoMar m hia boiiae, iliew from hiaa the »»atj
^the Iliad, and jMMcd it ofT far hia own. Hotner, it
ia aJded, ioUeweH hin toChioa. wihere Theatoridea waa
iwilii^ hia worka, and obliged the plagiaiy to fly from
Im imaiiiui]. Hia Ifindeai reception ia aaid to have
bMnatChioa, whar^ aaauming gaiety from hia eaay
cira«B«aiM!M^ ha PMn|iniirt the mock heroic of the
Fraga and Miee; There, alao, he manicd, and bad
two daughtan, one at whena died a virgin, and the
other ia lappeaed to bare peiiiefated hia race in the
Homendea, who, for many gcnenrtiona, lived by r»>
citing the Iliad and the Olyuey. On ihia aeoount of
Hoaaar'a lendtuca in Chioa, whether fabalaoa «r true,
arelbiiadMi ail the local traditioMof placaa canaecra>
ted by hit w— a A»o«y athi, that ef the hoUow in
the rack, whick bwn the mtmm of hia aehooi. but
which Taiiinrfurta and Choidlen hawe ao aatirely

It ia aot kaewn whel wpMlaJ Hoaw horn hia tm-
wHj, bat he qnttad Chioa. acBaidi»g to tfaia
at an advanead m» t* rac
Thoaa war* fnadpMj at aaa; and the kaowl
which the poet diiplqra of all the fade art that
known to taedhipwfigbt and aaanaB^f.

of history. The Emperor Adeian applied to tlie orade Homo,
to solve the oueation, and waa^told that he waacertain- '"V^"
ly bom in ItiuMai; but the oracle seema to have con-
verted few to ita opinion. The opinion of antiquity
•eaow g^MraOy to laiwt towards either Chios or Smyrna
havingoeenhis birth.pUce. Wood, who, after describing
Balbec and Falinyra, travelled tlirou^h Greece with the
worka of Homer in hia hand, ha» adopted, as we hare
already mentioned, an ingenious mode of inferring from
the landaeapea mm! natural similes of the poet, tlte
place in which Homer first received hia impressions of
tite acenery of nature. " 1 f we survey," aaya that travel-
ler, " the map ot' tlie world with attention, 1 think we
auj diaoover that his first impreaaiona of the exter-
lud fiioe of nature were made in a country east of
Greece, at leaat aa far as we may be alloweil to form a
judgment, from hia deacribing aome placea under a per-
apactive, to which such a point of view ia naoeaaary ;
M, Cor example, when he placea the Locriana beyond
Euboea. Thia piece of geography, though very intel-
ligible at Smyrna or Chioa, would appear strange at
Athena or Argoa. Hia deacription of the aituation of
the Friiiimlri beyond sea oppoaite to Elia, haa aume-
thJM e)parnral in it, which la cleared up, if we suppoae
it adqraaMii to the inliabiunta of the Asiatic side of the
fi rrhif rlago But if, with Mr I'ope, we understand
the wovda ^' bryo<>d sea" to relate to Elis, I think we
adopt an unnatural cuoattitaticn to ctnne at a forced
meaning; for the eld Graah hiatoriana tell us, that thoae
ialaud* are so doae upon the coaat of Kli*, that in their
lia« MMVflf thoataadbaaBJoiMdtoitby maaaaof
the iahilm, vkkb atill mtt^amm to eoaneet them
eriih the tirtiiiit, bf the nibbiah which that river de-
poaila at ita BMNh. I think 1 can diaeo««r another in-
alanoe of thia kind in the IMh book of the Odyaaey,

dafiMa deal at navigatianu
aaid to have baan iliaaatrno
well baUaea, whan wa

Many of hia eoyya
i a c iicwaiaiica wwch we
■ that the only ahipa
to
■ad bidlt withMtt a nail afi
Aa iUnaaa whicfc m la« aeiMd
ablimihfaa tertap at the iahadaf Joa. ml thar* ha
died Sbabo^ Pliay, Paaaaniai. Ariaftla, and Aalua

flf the phwB of
A
criebratad aa tha dayantary ofl
ta which the alataa «f Aivaa aaat a

8ach «• a lew of the tnita af ha lifc whiA an gi.
van m the wark attribaled la Haiwdataa. rtmnajr Urn
piaen that hava laid daintatka heaaar af hia hirth,
I thiaha that ha waabara atColapkan; Aii.
Athena; Pindar, at Snryiaa; AfiatDtle
aaffaaaa that he was bom, aa waU w Ite ha died, ia
tha idnd of Chioa. Suidae aainna hini la C]
athan ta P>laa. Rhadca. Mycnna^
Afgaa. late, tha gi
laM^ anrijr avar the whaia Map af AaM Mi
FilrnioBniiii, and tha ArridaahM Evan Egypt^Hs
had tuadvoctaa gar thia diatatetien; so that the whole
ancient worid aaay ba aad to hava claimed him. The
poet Martial, whan caBad nyan far kirn ipiiiiaa an the
Mfaiact, eookl only aiplylnan
■MaabalaHadtathaanfU at lam, aod it
tW«MnM.1ikathalia|hl, babnga to all that can an.
i^ it; bat unfortunate^ epi^MH win not settle poiota

where
acribed
of the
with a
land, and

the faitiiful aervant of Ulyaaea, ia da-
( hia dii^iaad master with a recital
of hia youth. He opena hia rtaty
of the nland of Syraa, hia native
it beyond ar above Oftygia. Now, it'
Ithaaa waa iha icana af thin tionfwwiBa
Ulymaa and fiuawaa, it will afipaor thai tha
af Syroa ia vary inacaantoly laid down ; for
ia reality thia iaknd, ao far Aaai being plaead beyond
ar Cnthar AaaaOrtygia, ahould have bean daaaihail m
to it. An ingewioaa friend thioka that — nian*a
' to to tha latitadaw and that Honiar maaat to

r) aa north of Ortogia ; but I cannot help
Iha applianhai af high to northern lau-

Aa tkmwhim tha aane deauaitian would luve bean
parlaatly agiaaable to twnii had it baan aiaila in Ionia,
laitiMtMaanBafelatoaappaaothattbapoatMeeived hia
earlv iaipaataiana of thaaitaatiaa of Syraa in that part
of the world, and had apan thia BBcaiinn forgotten to
adapt hieidoaa to the apet towhieh tha aoene ia ahiftad.
If ay rMJiBlBii ia thaa Aa aJaaittttl. I beg laava
to piecaaJ to a farther aaa of it, in attompting to
throw aooM Ught on thib obaeoia ezpiaaaiaa ittrfurmi
iuutt*. It ia important to that part of the poet'a chara^
tar now under oonaidtoatian, to have hia aenae of thoae
worda laatowd if poaaihla; far they hava bean aigod aa
an aagnmnt at hia gnm igwuiaiica of foagtanhy, Iqr
thoae who think they niato to tha laliiada af Syna,
and that thia dcacrinlian pkHaa that iiiand nndcr dto
* * * *. I beg leave to carry tha reader for a
to the Aaiatic aid* of the Archipelago, in or-
der to ei amine whether a view of the landscape under
4

100

HOME R.

Homer, that perspective offers any appearances to which those
'""'Y*™^ vrortls can be naturally applied without violence to their
literal meaning. No part of our tour afforded more
entertainment than the classical sea prospects from this
coast and the neighbouring islands, where the eye is
naturally carried westward by the most beautiful ter-
minations imaginable, especially when they are illumi-
nated by the setting sun, which shews objects so dis-
tinctly in the clear atmosphere, that from the top of
Ida I could very plainly trace the outline of Athos on
the other side of the jEgean Sea, when the sun set be-
hind that mountain. This rich scenery principally en-
gaged the poet's attention ; and if we consider him as
a painter, we shall generally find his face turned this
way. In the infancy, and even before the birth of
astronomy, the distinct variety of this broken horizon
would naturally suggest the idea of a sort of ecliptic to
the inhabitants of the Asiatic coast and islands, mark-
ing the annual northern and southern progress of the
sun. Let us suppose the lonians looking south-west
from tlie heights of Chios at the winter solstice, they
would see the sun set behind Tenos and towards Syros,
the ne.\t island in the same south-west direction ; and
having observed, that when he advanced thus far he
turned back, they would fix the turnings (t^otoji) of
the snn to this point. I submit it as matter of conjec-
ture, whether this explanation does not offer a more na-
tural interpretation of the passage than any which has
yet been suggested. In pursuance of the same method
of illustrating Homer's writings, I shall draw some
conjectures with regard to the place of his birth, or at
least of his education, from his similes. Here we may
expect the most satisfactory evidence that an enquiry
ef this obscure nature will admit. It is from these na-
tural and unguarded appeals of original genius, to the
obvious and familiar occurrences of common life, that
we may not only frequently, collect the customs, man-
ners, and arts of remote antiquity, but sometimes dis-
cover the condition, and, I think, in the following in-
stances, the country of the poet." After enumerating
several similes to support his theory, the essayist pro-
ceeds to the following : " When the formidable march
of Ajax is compared to a threatening storm coming from
the sea, I must observe as an illustration, not of the ob-
vious beauty of the simile, but of the poet's country,
that this can be no other than an Ionian, or at least an
Asiatic storm ; for it is raised by a west wind, which,
in those seas, can blow on that coast alone. When,
Bgain, the irresistible rage of Hector is compared to the
violence of Zephyrus buffeting the waves, we are not
immediately reconciled to that wind's appearance in
that rough appearance so little known to western cli-
mates, and so unlike the playful Zephyrus of modern
poetry. But before we condemn Homer as negligent
of nature, we should see whether he is Hot uniform in
this representation, and whether this is not the true
Ionian character of Zephyrus. The very next simile
of the same book is as much to our purpose, where the
numbers, tumult, and eagerness of the Grecian army
collecting to engage, are compared to a growing storm
which begins at sea, and proceeds to vent its rage upon
the shore. The west wind is again employed in this
Ionian picture, and we shall be less surprised to see the
same allusion so often repeated, when we find, that of
all tlie appearances of nature, of a kind so generally
subject to variation, there is none so constant upon this
coast. For at Smyrna, the west wind blows into tiie
gulf for several hours, almost every day during the
sununer season, generally beginning in a gentle breeze

before twelve o'clock ; but freshening considerably to- Homer.
wards the heat of the day, and dying away in the even- ^"""V"
ing. During a stay of some months in this city, at
three different times, I had an opportunity of observing
the various degrees of this progress, from the first dark
curl on the surface of the water, to its greatest agita-
tion, which was sometimes violent. Though these ap-
pearances admit of variation, both as to the degree of
strength, and the precise time of their commencement,
yet they seldom entirely fail. This wind, upon which
the health and pleasure of the inhabitants so much de-
pend, is by them called inbat. The Frank merchants
have long galleries running from their houses, support-
ed by pillars, and terminating in a chiosque or open
summer-house, to catch this cooling breeze, which,
when moderate, adds greatly to the oriental luxury of
their coffee and pipe. We have seen how happily the
poet has made use of the growing violence of this
wind, when he paints the increasing tumult of troops
rushing to battle, but in a still, silent picture, the allu-
sion is confined to the first dubious symptoms of iti
approach, which are perceived rather by the colour,
than by any sound or motion of the water; as in the
following instance. When Hector challenges the most
valiant of the Greeks to a single combat, both armies
are ordered to sit down to hear his proposal. The
plain thus extensively covered with shields, helmets,
and spears, is, in the moment of this solemn pause,
compared to the sea, when a rising western breeze has
spread a dark shade over its surface. When the reader
has compared the similes I have pointed out with the
original materials which I have also laid before him, I
shall submit to his consideration, as a matter of doubt-
ful conjecture, whether the poet, thoroughly familia-
rized to Ionian features, may not have inadvertently
introduced some of them in the following picture, to
which they do not so properly belong. When Eidothea,
the daughter of Proteus, informs ^lenelaus at Pharos,
of the time when her father is to emerge from the sea,
the circumstance of Zephyrus, introduced in a descrip-
tion of noon, darkening the surface of the water, is
so perfectly Ionian, and so merely accidental to the
coast of Egypt, that I cannot help suspecting the poet
to have brought this image from home."

That the Iliad displays abundance of geographical
knowledge, is certainly no internal proof either for or
against its being the work of one individual ; but if we
suppose it to be the work of a single genius, upon the
grounds of that mind alone which had conceived so
lofty a plan, being able to accomplish its magnificent
execution, we shall find in the geography of its author
unquestionable pi-oofs of his having been an extensive
traveller. Slrabo has left a commentary on the geo-
graphical parts of the Iliad and Odyssey ; and others,
such as ApoUodorus and Menogenes, wrote on the same
subject, though unfortunately only the titles of their
works have reached posterity. Homer, in the midst of
all his splendid machinery, was regartled as so faithful
a painter of real existence, that his catalogue of the
Grecian forces was respected as a valuable record in
ancient Greece, and appealed to by its jurisprudence. In
some cities it was enacted by law, that the youth should
get the catalogue by heart. Solon, the lawgiver, appealed
to it in justification of the Athenian claim against the
pretensions of the Megareans, when the right to Salamis
was so warmly contested by Athens and Megara. And
the decision of that matter was at last referred to five
Spartan judges, who, on their part, admitted the na-
ture of the evidence, and tlie affair was accordingly de«

HOMER.

101

termined in favour et the Athenians. Three other li-
tigated CMM of property and dominioB are taid to hanre
been detamined by rmrcnce to Hooer'a geography,
la HoMMt^ age dim was no other way of acquiring
knowledge but b^ trarelling. To the curioaity re*pect>
^ Mi own tpeocs, which muft have poitiurf iIm
t nind of the poet, antl impelled him to bnve dw
I of aM and himI, ika vcraciow Slnboadda ano>
probable motive of hi* tniTeb, whiob waa the
I to make hi« fable accord with the mythoiogy of
the pca|de whom he hntrodnoed on Ma acww of action.
For thia porpoae, aaya Strabo, he eonwiked the reli-
MM recordi and the oraclea that wcte aoapcnded in
uw trmpiea. At thet period there were hardly any
ether hiitorieal notimnenta known. The prieMa held
the (ceptre of public opinion, and all hiatary waa ooa>
awned to the oradce. Oiodorua aaya, that Uooer t>-
ailed the wie of Delphoa. Aftar the aeeond nckiag of
OieeiBn Thcbea by Akmeon, the urephiteM Marnlo,
deaglMcr of the fiuned TireMu. hed beea aant to Del-
phi at making part of the aprtla, where ahe aeqoirad
greet renown ly her talent fort uwipiwng efdea. The
■mting of Homer with each a Iwly ie intercating to
the imawnatinn. Ilomer, aaya the luMarian. borrowed
aoaw itraDag vcraea of the eracle^ .either a>
er avtodn^ to give weignt to hie werka.

Ibecmooa to aee«tain m what
1 ne paelry of Gtaest vhen he
; b«l Ike niiiliea ia tatalvad in
} ebaeafity. While he ia haikil m the

gly not the laeaatar ef pactry. Accord-
ing to the Greek hbraiy of PaWciaa, thave ware aa-
ecnty Greek poeta anlinor to Mto* Taa graMar peet
ef them were maaiciaHk, Amoqg tiMae Ubm ia CMd,
vte^ it ia aaid, reheaaM ihaflniaspaaiMBafBMMHB
and OrplMaat wha aasg tiw ArgaMNMa aneaWasi
TheamwtieBefgoiAe, tiM Homer dbaw hb atMjr oT
the nkd Aem thM of CorioMM, wha eaiafaaad it da-
ring the Tiejaa war, iiwe to be aoljr the dram of a
iMiwMieiihei. Taetaee, a iiiriJii ef the Ifllh ean-

tUffTi WnO MMto ft CBMIIlXlltfttT VIpOS LVCM|NHVD9 HKI

a bad poem called the Chiliadal wavld have «e b^
liere that Hontrr bonewad hia lUad ikea Ditto* Om>
tenea, a writer to whom a amaaearlpt eirtainfy
aneiant, bat not migiiial, waa aacrioad, w
ia theraignef one ef the Caaaia, in a
titfawa eaea ay an eaftB^aaa^ araea wa are laM
that Dictye maowad idanmaeaa to the eiege ef Tiay,
and wrote a httiary of it ia ptoM, wa have mdto em

ataryefHeaMr'a
lef

It

He-

with its etymology, which, with its Agas and Memnons
ia not so cliverting, but equally credible with Swift's
derivation of Hector, Ajax, and .\lexancler.

The epoch of Homer has been not less a subject of
diapotation than his country. Herodotus says in his
Eatarpe, that he lived 400 vears before his own (the
hialenaii's) tin»e. In the chronicle of the I'arian mar-
blea. Homer ia aaid to hare been in hi* hif^hest renown
at the Tear of the chronicle 67-'^, which would place the
dato of the Iliad 2707 JTcai* ftom the beginning <^ the
preeent century ; but Tcnetnble aa the airthority of the
Parian marbles may appear, they seem to assitrn a later
date to the great poet than hia writings, and the man«
nersofeoeiafef which he deacribee, reader probable. It
oaaiaeiit with his writings to auppoae, that he
not long after the siege of Trey, and that he
~ both his poems half a century after the
tawn waa taken. As the first intf reeling aloriee ha
heard when a boy were those of the exploits performed
in the Tfojen war, in his riper years he had still an op-
pnrtMnity ef conversing with the old men who had
beea stigagBd in it. Their immediate deecapdanta
would, aoeorcUng to this supposition, be his contempo-
laries ; he might know their grandchildren, and live to
aee the birth af the ibutth generation. It is true, that
thia hjrpatfaesis awkee the birth oi Homer prior to the
Ionian mi^iaNuai which Thurydidea places 80 years
after tlte wage ef Trey ; but in this tnare is no solid
wa know that there were loniana in Asia

HooMr.

I tbeary ef Bryaat, which
mad tiia aialMhli of his IKed

Ho.

iiae mend en edv
times, vis. the I
rosr to hav« I

for it aMiits aat the nenM of I
memnoe. Hdaa, ftc. were ell
drawn ftaai Fajpliaa thaagony, and naturalised in
Giaece. Meodkaa is evidently the i'haraoh >lmes ;
AgaoMmnen iethelNakith word AgapraSasd to Maa-
iMS^ whose harp lateandiil at the laaeh af the iW^g
day. The wealthy Myctae aavar raistod bat ia the
viity ef Thacydidae, aad the ifaJaMlj ti Heradotaa.
Trey aaavesislad bat aa the 4Mnaar the Nile. The
WitnriMl pat of tUa bypothaaa is qaile apenapar

pnartotiMflalaByof that name beiiw brought thither.
Tha rhiMawii af Haner aearibiag double tha
to aaa ef the beroce of tha
pnof that he laokad hack toa very
Sach ftaciftd ii^garaliuiis of tha
s iaiHiediala aaeaslan wKf be Ibaad ia
af Ike awldla ^aa, that mast have beea
ria illy T8«n af tha liMaw af tbeaa
wkaai na poet ateribM a siae aad
aiag saber belieC Tha aeeoant which
Hoiaer gives of toe teaty of jEneas ceiMinuing to
rrign over tha Trajaaa after the Greeks had rlsMBhsh
ed Troy, theagh at vatiaace with Virgil's fidde, (a dp-
eaaMtBMeef Bojpaat eeasaqamws as to its credibility,)
has all tha air efnaiiiig basa drawn from contempora-

■nt of the family of
it waald have beea difkult, aa well as Hirlsm,
far Hoamr to have fimtd. Now the succimion of
AaaasTs graal>fnaddalaraa to the kingdom ef Troy
is the latest faetwWeh the peal has left on rcoonL The
pnfaahly distarbed that very
aad from Homer, who
historical acmunta, being ailent
laihaBta, it may be infetred, that
he did not live to be iH|aiiiiliil with it. Tha otfaar
snd later era which has beea asagned to our past,
nmkes him cantempusafy with Lycurgos, and, connect-
ed with it, thera ia a traiditian of Homer and the law-
^ in tha iaiand of Chioa. But the pic-

ef aaciaty which Hoaav exhibita da« not acconl
Wbea we look to the verisimili-
ef Ua daasfiplieae, we mast believe that lie paint-
ed the aatani warld aad all its manners from the life.
Thera is no traea ef his afcrting to give it an aiiti(|ua-
tod air, or of wiahiag, as a mmlrm poet would proba-
bly be inclined to do^ to atady timplicity of oMcctt for
pictareaqae cCkI; on the oontrarv, whenever ne luxu-
rialaa in dseeription it ie in painting artificial objects.
Those who briaf dewa Honser, therafiae, so low ss the
of Lyeorgaik scaa to frrgat that sisch a poet and

102

HOMER.

Homer, such a legislator belong to diflTerent states of society. It
""~y"™^ lias been questioned, anil indeed it appears more tlian
questionable, if the art of writing was known in the
days of Homer. If we consult the poet himself upon
this question, we shall find that in all his comprehensive
picture of civil society there is nothing that decidedly
conveys an idea of letters, or of reading. The words
'S.Afiair* Xvy^K, it is true, in the letter mentioned in the
Iliad, which Bellerophon carries to the king of Lycia,
have been quoted as a proof of alphabetical writing ;
but the generality of the term has much more the ap-
pearance of merely symbolical signs, or hieroglyphics,
than of what we call writing. That such symbolical
marks of thought were known in the rudest ages, there
can be no doubt ; and what has been already alluded
to in the travels of the poet as a possible and even pro-
bable fact, namely, his consulting the records of differ-
ent temples, must be taken with this understanding,
that such records were, in all probability, also symboli-
cal or hieroglyphical. The introduction of prose writ-
ing into Greece took place at so late a period, as to
leave it by much the more probable supposition, that
alphabetical writing was unknown to Homer ; for
when prose writing is of recent date, the alphabet can-
not have been long in use. Homer, therefore, there is
every reason to think, could neither read nor write ; he
recited his own works from memory, and hence it is
little wonderful that he addresses the Muses as the
daughters of that faculty of the mind. In modern
times, when the memory is at once distracted by so
many pursuits, and obliged to lean on so many artificial
assistances, we are apt to under-rate its powers when
employed upon a single object, and trained by habitual
exercise upon that object. To an ancient poet like
Homer, his memory was not only the mother of his
muse, but his constant and indispensable guardian.
The rhapsodists also preserved his works by oral tradi-
tion ; and if their subsistence depended in a profession
where there were rivals to detect the e»rors of each
other, upon the accuracy with which they recited those
poems, they were perhaps more safe from corruptions
and interpolations, or at all events from omissions in re-
citation, than we might be apt to imagine, by ascribing
the same lax exertions of memory to those reciters,
which ainse in modern times from the constant reliance
upon writing. It may be doubted whether the rhap-
sodists made such havock in the sense of Homer, as the
perverted ingenuity of writivg commentators has made
in that of Shakespeare.

Lycurgus, the legislator of Sparta, is said to have
been the first who collected the fragments of Homer's
poetry during his travels in Asia Minor, and on his re-
turn by the island of Chios. Three hundred and seven
years afterwards, Pisistratus, who erected at Athens the
first public library that is mentioned in Grecian history,
gave directions to a body of the learned for preparing
an edition of the poet more correct than that of Lycur-
gus, and Solon and Hipparchus are said to have assist-
ed in the undertaking.* At the destruction of Athens,
in the invasion of Xerxes, the Iliad and Odyssey were
taken from thence, and conveyed to Persia ; and the des-
pot himself seems to have respected this monument of
taste and genius, since a part of the collection was
found at Susa during the conquests of Alexander. It
is perhaps to this epoch that we may assign the edition

Odyssey which was rectified by Aratus, and Homtr
bears the name of the Arata-an edition. Alex- '^■'^r^

of the

which bears i

ander's enthusiasm for the memory of Homer is one of
the noblest traits of his character. He charged Anax-
archus and Callisthenes to revise the copies of Ljxur-
gus and Pisistratus ; and Aristotle put the last hand to
this precious edition, called the edition of the casket.
After the battle of Arbela, when tlie conqueror had
found, in the tent of Darius, a casket of gold, enriched
with stones of inestimable value, he there deposited the
two poems of Homer, and laid the treasure along with
his sword every night under his pillow. After the
death of Alexander, Zenodotus of Ephesus was charged,
by the first of the Ptolemies, with the task of revising
the edition of the casket. The last edition belonging
to this period of high antiquity is that which Aristar-
chus, the greatest critic of his age, published under the
auspices of Ptolemy Philometer, about nineteen centu-
ries and a half ago, and which has served as a model
for all collections of the works of Homer both in the
middle ages and modern times.

The first edition of Homer since the invention of
printing, was that of Demetrius Chalcondyles of Athens,
and of Demetrius of Crete. It is entirely in Greek, is
very magnificent, and now exceedingly scarce. It ap-
peared at Florence in December 1488, in one folio,
and had been collated with the commentaries of Eusta-
thius. It was not till half a century after, that the
works of Homer appeared again in Greek, with the en-
tire commentaries of Eustathius. t This edition, the
only complete one of the commentary of Eustathius,
had long been regarded as a.chef d'ceuvre of sound cri-
ticism and correctness, till the learned discovered innu-
merable faults in it, by comparing it with MSS. ; and
the improvement of taste at last threw contempt on the
barren prolixity of the commentary. Six years after
the Roman edition of Eustathius, there appeared at
Leyden the first esteemed edition of the prince of
poets, that had a Latin version. It contained also the
scholia of Didymus, a commentator assigned to the age
of Augustus. We notice here only those editions which
may be said to form an epoch in the illustration of Ho-
mer. Joshua Barnes brought out at Cambridge the
Greek and Latin texts of Didymus, with his own com-
mentaries. The edition of Samuel Clarke appeared at
London in 1734; that of Ernesti at Leipsic in 1764.
Villoison, who was sent to Venice by the French go-
vernment to collect ancient relics of literature, found in
the library of St Mark, an unique copy of the Iliad of
the 10th century, with the remarks of sixty of the most
famous critics of antiquity, such as Aristarchus and Ze-
nodotus. It appeared, that this manuscript had been
made from a copy in the library of the Ptolemies that
was burnt by the barbarian Omar. Villoison remained
two years at Venice to copy it with his own hand, and
printed it in a folio volume, entirely Greek. As the ori-
ginal possessor of this literary treasure had joined to it
many various and lost editions of the poet, this publi-
cation of Villpison may be called the Ilomeri variorum
of antiquity. Vl^olff and Heyne are the two latest edi-
tors of Homer. Their merits have been so frequently
treated of in the reviews and literary journals of our
own time, that we forbear to descant upon them.

The memory of the great poet has received not only
the homage of conmientators and editors of his works.

• Diog. Lacrt. Plut. in Hipparcho.

t With the following tide, Homeri Ilias et Odytna, Grace, cum Commtntariii CrtBcit Buntathii, Anhipiacopi Teataianicentis ; lie
mce, apud Bladum et GiuTitum, 1542 aud liSO, 4 vols, ia folio.

HOME R.

103

b«C of timv«Ilcr«, who have ouricd the reader't imafi-
nation to tb* Mcne of hi« action. Amaoff tbete may
be noticed ToOTncfart, the French natunJiat, who un.
dentooil tte ehwiral •• weU «• bia friMiitB ymtttblt
worU. BidHH Raeoefcc abo cHiiRl bM NMBKhM in-
to GfMc^ tbaagb wkb itaa Mriribrtinci to the pabtic
cvnoaitT than into other qoaitva. Ladj Uarj Mo«t-
l^ae ^mlttd the TVomI, itMagfa aMwewfart baMily, and
Mw. or imagined ifcaft alw «w, the tomb of Achilles.
Doctor Chandler viritad Am Miwir and Grawx in
176V-6<i, and made Mae ceo^ecture* that have not re-
ceived much credit In ronjecturinir the atact wlMtien
of Troy, and of the tcene of Homer'* trawla, modem
t/arellen have not been man tmeetmM than the an-
eienta. Wood, who, on "mhT pafnti> laakea ingenious
and laubable conjecture*, ia &r Axm baring aettied the
euBtiwenjr of the Troed ; and Chrraber ami Gell, who
wtCBcdtd him in the fame attempt, haire been laai
teamed and much more mtoitou* in tiicir aappoaiboaa.
To the real adnrinr of HooMr the turtiiwenj will
prabaMr appear of teat inpoitance than it has been
OHdc Forthefiitevkjref fading, at the end of SOOO
yeart, tbetilaaf a town, of which an ancient poet Mjr*,
that, in hi* own time, the very mina bad dHappearad,
(ctiaat ptrmt rmntr,) tbei* ia sorely an appannt and
' em raaaon in tha cbaMta and lavMrM which 90

l^^tb^[|OTaa baa oandamned linn to Tarti
■Bttvtod lUw MOdna oa tbe IiirlnHjFi
nHBad nai nvni bia iooal rcpnblie.

mind wmU eonidw Imit hmmi •• adopt tba wiU
I war aa tba Tn^ ever esi<tcd ; aU
I woald mwi tbe Iliad a much
hndiyi*.
1 na cnoBH jtagumm tnai ■■?■ oaan paaaco npan
Homer wonld nil tnfira Inifnnaiu Hatnoa aanjflM ntea
a placi ai a moral teadMr aba«* Chfjaippaa aad (>■••
tor, tbe leaden of tba two meat AmoM acboate of pW>
Ibaapoy. nnBjjj, m hUr timaa, eompaaad a tn^
tfK on tba (Mngphy of Momcr. _On tba olber baid.

Mid Plato bik-
TvpobHc^' Yet Mnidat the
• oftbe'
it ia aMjr to parcaira tba
reaaoos in hi* motiraa far
ba arcn rcaeema oor opniMR oC bia toato by
narfaivMdibaanlaiM tbis bMfakaMt to be pot in
ftna. FWm^ k rfiwnid ba raaalaetod, arlwiti m n*.
lira onlr two aKktoneaa, tba origbtoi idaa, and tba ba-

b^wMcbtetly Iilmti afar cayyof tbt biaa.

■te BH aHMnH ibh ha

ahnoat arrest* bis tongue from condemning hiin, and that
he cansiderti him a.1 the maker of all poets who have
succeeded liim, particularly those of the drama. After
tfaiB apology, be demoaatrates at great length that the
goda of tba IKad avt caleulatad to give us unworthy
notion* of divinity, a fact which, pMottMkicalfy eoiw
aidered, it is not very difficult to pruve. To exculpate
Homer from thia heavy charget botb his ancient and
modem admirer* have rteourse to altegory ; and in this
system of explaining the Iliad, have mixed a vast deal
cif abaurditT with a very snvall portion ot truth. It ia
true that there wa« allegory and emblem both in a»>
eient rd^icm and philosophy ; and some of the fictioni
of Homer carry their allegarical meaning in their ap-
pearance. But to see nothing in the whole Iliad l)iit
moral abstmctiona personified, is an idea as intolerable
to common scnae as to poetical feeling. Such a forced
emlaiMtian of tbe Iliad would after all leava tbe poem
Muto as inimwal as it is in iu plain intarpretatian.
Somtoar we toke Jupiter for the powar of God^ Oestiagr
for ni* will, Jmto for hia justice, Venns lor his mercy,
and Minerva for his wiadom, we shall still find the
dicology of Homer a* deftctioe aa if wa take thing* as
Aey are in the IIumI, that ia, if wa andeistond his dei-
tiaa to be iuHiienced bjr tba passions of men. Hsmii
painlad tba foAi Jail as tbe vulgar belief repmeantod
tten. It liH impimibte Ibr bim to have dom oIIm»-
wiaa^ lor basaald not ennto a naw reKgiant bnttf
we eonld aapp<Me it [inmibte far him to ba^ soipaaaad
tbe Nmiti at* human inleU|ganaa< and to bare antiei-
palad tba bicbar noboos of Pteto laapattii^r the di-
linkj. it irwud not bara baan bia inlaMat aa a poet to
' hte ■jtbetegy into tba nan tbatms of tba
Tb« aaiMM tlMt ba bad caaaad to eon-
the inb^bilaMa of OHrmpoa aa iapasaoncd be-
ings, there waaaa and to all onr intarail in tbeirao-
tMML Dirinibr, in ka tme attributes, is not a sab)aet
far NIHBDC mbsi^

The toadb^Mna of BMre recent refinement in tmti>
ment and ■HOBtn faaa baan applied with the same slv
aordity tobisbaraaa, m tba standard of para tbotdqcy
^a ba^ to bte ifivi^ili^

wmch Oad

raw thoogM, and by tba otbar aiialanow all tba

An oti^acti May tfani aaly c

•rainiodcl, tbetfts

Iftban, says Plata^ (magthia af Mi ava Mad

of Ibte

•my

prindpte of bo>

jafbteavai
I baldly ba caBaa aran Aa copy of • oopy, )
a peat iteaM piaatal btomlf ■aaagat oa wha k»M*a
bow to tnaoai arary tMav ia iMtara by iadi
we mooKi cttoiy oar waamMB lar mm aa av a (
lersoa, wao oHJmai tobai

person,

we sboald Mil hba dtet oar peiiiieal irBBiaiy dM aat
admit of ndipcrooaa aatoi^aa, and w* ahaoM taai
him to another city afaw harfaif tuitalllad Mm with
perftimcs. and uuwnail Ma Mod wfNi tawam, It ma«

MOW

lit nfiiahrl with
tospaah of Hoomt fclniiilf. it ia with tba dsapast re
rttrttea for his gCBia& Ha ewaa ftm iha laapatt snd
tevt which ht Mi fidtaactUtiaflBey far Ma writings

I owned, that even tha wait* of a peat ooufal hardly
iniiil I WlnPUtooamm

la tha timm wMoh bad*,
saribad, tbe power of a nun's body eonstituted tl»
grralar part of his eatimstion in oocialy. Ha who
coald sapport tbe haarieak load of anaoar, ami who
eonld giro and tafca tha hordcat blows, was ■ fanaid»>
Ma man or a hsvn* Whan this oapanority ipat aaoe
It astaDMaao hia ranli in exact ooBMparison
it is so common in Homer's
of aeknow lodged
te •miarior to him. At
the aqaality of anns and tnc iwit
woald make a man ashamed of
Bat in Homer, Anam mys wttmmt i
" I know tlwt thoa art otoro vaboBlthaa m^" wMeh ia,
hi aibar words, « 1 know that thoa ait atnagar." £aam
adda, " faf, Aoteaarr, ifwmm god pretastr ai^, / sAatf he
mile to eomfmr." And tbk m a general principle,
which to^ eartan extent may be said to constitate all
OS tha laad, namely, that pasrcr, soooam,
all eonw faom tha goda. When Ago*
laa Ma outiatB apaa Addllas, ha saya
that aama god had dialaibad his raasoa. It te the pro-
tection of uda or that divinity that gives the Gnwk and
~" " " . • . . - the

armies, or

diminiahlnir the Rlocy
Wa see clcsrly thst Homer

iccuvn w !■— VT vnm\ tiiTiiiitj inai Ki*w uir \TrevK

Trojan heroes each a triumph in hi* tura ; it ii

mapire tham far tlv aaaabat ; bat we moat not rc|

thia intorvaatiaa af thodaitim as diminiahlnir the a

HflffflCT.

this
oftlw

104

HOME R.

Homer, docs not lessen their importance on that account.
^^^-^^ On tlie contrary, the epic spirit of the piece is hei^jht-
ened by this machinery, because it is clearly perceived
that the heroes thus favoured of heaven, rise in the opi-
nion of tlieir associates and atlversaries on that account.
Achilles excepted, there is not a hero of the Iliad who
does not at some time or other retire before another.
What distinguishes the bravest, such as Ajax and
Diomede, is, that they fight as they retreat. And it
may be observed, to the glory of Homer, that, in spite
of this divine intervention, which we might expect to
confound all distinctions of human bravery, he still
preserves tlie distinctive character of greatness in his
lieroes, even when yielding to supernal influence.

It is a singular trait in the Iliad, that the sullen rest
of its hero Achilles should form the main-spring of the
action. His absence appears to be the cause of the dis-
asters of his countrymen, which prolong the contest.
Tliis, so far from being a defect in the plan of the ac-
tion, is an artifice which carries internal evidence of
the whole plan being the invention of one great mind;
all the prowess of the successive agents that are de-
scribed, ministers to the ultimate triumph of him by
whom Hector is to fall. In the fire and spirit of this
ancient hero. Homer has not certainly left what it would
be absurd to seek for in ancient poetry, a model of
pure morality ; but he has consummated the picture of
all that must have commanded the respect of warlike
and barbarous times, and has in fact pourtrayed a being
that would, under different circumstances, in all ages
predominate over the rest of his species, by his pride
and energy. It may be necessary to notice the vulgar
tradition of his being invulnerable all over but in the
heel ; but Homer does not debase the courage of his
hero by such a fable : nor is his character of stern pride
unrelieved by circumstances that touch us with an in-
terest in his fate. His youth, his beauty, his maternal
descent from a goddess, the certain prediction that,
while he could find no conqueror, he was one day to
perish in the Trojan war, prepare us for the part of no
vulgar hero.

To enter on a minute criticism of the Iliad would far
exceed our limits. The most superficial readers are
probably acquainted with the hackneyed objections
that have been made to its prolixity of speeches and
military details, to the minuteness and surgical de-
scription of wounds, the ferocity of its manners, and
the abusive epithets which the heroes exchange when
they quarrel. The French criticism of La Motte and
Perrault has gone even so far as to blame the simplicity
of its manners, and to throw contempt on Achilles for
cooking his own dinner. The majority of those objec-
tions are frivolous. It is true that the primitive abund-
ance of expletives, and the Greek loquacity of Homer,
may at times be excessive; but the dramatic air which
the constant dialogue gives to the Iliad, would be ill
exchanged for the conciseness of mere narrative. The
diversity of Homer's battles, as an eminent critic has
observed, shews an invention next to boundless ; the
technical terms of the wounds that are described, ap-
pear technical to us, only because the language of sci-
ence is derived from Greek ; and the fastidious taste
that is offended with the bold simplicity of ancient
manners, would with equal propriety find fault with

Salvador Rosa for not having adorned his mountain
scenery with terraces and gravel-walks. Achilles
cooking his dinner is certainly a considerably more
poetical personage than Louis the XIV. would have
been if La Motte had made him the hero of an Epopee,
treading on a velvet carpet, and commanding the Mai-
tre d'hotel to prepare his fricasees.

The excellencies of the Iliad, independent of the
beautiful and sonorous language to which it belongs,
may be summed up in the vastness and variety of the
picture of existence which it spreads before us ; the
spirit and perpetual motion of its agents ; the relieving
interchanges of an interesting inferior world, and a
heaven of voluptuous and gay mythology ; the progres-
sive swell and importance of the story ; and the art
with which the very rest of Achilles is made subser-
vient to the evolution of his grandeur ; the full physiog-
nomy of human character displayed in every age and
situation of life ; the unstudied strength of his circum-
stances in description ; and the contagious spirit with
which he seizes the mind to sympathy with his martial
passion : Such an apocalypse of life, from its sublimest
tumults to its minutest manners, was never communi-
cated by another human imagination.

If Homer has erred at all, it is from the wealth, or
rather from the pathos of his genius, in giving so strong
a countervailing interest to the character of Hector.
This unquestionably diminishes our exultation in the
triumph of Achilles. Yet who would wish that fault
undone.'' Here is the generosity of genius, even in the
poet, scorning the bigotry of national hatred that would
depreciate the heroism of an enemy. It is, perhaps, re-
peating superfluously, what few have to be told, that
the character of Achilles, so unlike the inexorabilis acer
of Horace, has a relief of the noblest traits of compas-
sion and generosity amidst the fury of his savage pas-
sions. The concluding book of the Iliad teems with
the most touching circumstances of his generosity. He
receives King Priam, joins him in his tears at the re-
collection of their respective losses ; perfumes the body,
and orders it to be kept out of the father's sight, lest it
should shock the grief of the king ; places it himself in
a litter, fearing that Priam might burst into a fit of ex-
asperation, and should exasperate himself also ; and, fi-
nally, refreshes him with food and sleep in his tent, and
takes him by the right hand as a friend. In recogni-
zing such traits of compassion in the proverbially sa-
vage Achilles, one is tempted to believe, that humanity
is not so modern a virtue as some would have us be-
lieve.

The Odyssey speaks less to the imagination than the
Iliad, but it introduces us to a still more minute and
interesting view of ancient manners, and it awakens
with deeper effect the softer passions that appear but
rarely in the other poem. It is strange, that La Harpe,
who redeems much of his bad French taste by an ap-
parently sincere enthusiasm for the genius of Homer,
should say, that the Odyssey is devoid of the eloquence
of sentiment. If by sentiment we mean the sickly
misanthropy, or the rampant enthusiasm which distin-
guishes so many modern productions, there is certainly
nothing of the kind in the Odyssey ; and the difference
of circumstances in which human nature was then
placed, must be fairly estimated,* before we can even

• Many Oriental countries retain to this day manners of society nearly similar to those described in the Odyssey. There is notliing
more remarkable in those manners than the degree of refinement to which profound dissimulation is carried in all ranks. The stran-
ger accommodates his language much le.isto his own sentiments, than to his hopet and fears, or the countenance of those he meets.
The arts of disguise are, in those countries, the great arts of life; and the character of Ulysses would form a perfect model for those
who wish to make their way with security aud respect. Cruelty, violence, and injustice, are also so evidently the result of defective

H O M

105

HON

H«-ki'»

pardon ttumj nuxinis of moral conduct which UlyMe*
practically amwa: but if by sentiment we mean the
onaophiMicstcd feeling of ttie heart, where, it may be
aakcoTahall we find it, if it tt not found in the pathetic
shaations of Telcmachu*, the conjuj^l lo> e of Penelo-
pe, and the return of L'lyase* to hi« home, with all the
circnmatJince* that attend it, hii aged dog expiring
with jov at hb feet, and his father relating to him,
while he retain* Ida dkniae, all the little rircuro-
at hii childhood tnat could awaken his teoder-

cat aMociatxma.

Besides the IKad and Odyssey, Homer is said to
hare composed another poem, entitled MiurgiUt. It is
BOW losL It is said by some to have been a comedy ;
bat, ftom some vcrtcs in the content between Homer
and Hesiod, k may be rather conjectured to have been
a piece of mockery and satire. Margites is the name
or a pcnon in a verse that is preserved br Plato, who
is described as knowing many things, and knowing no-
thing welL Such a dtaracter may nave been the ori-
ginal hero of Homer's satire, and been thus' damne«I to
•veriasting memory, Kke the Mac Flecknoe of Dryden.
The little mock heroie of the Battle of the Mice and
Frogt, is well known, from Pamell** translation, to the
En^ish mdir. Plufcasur Heyne sappoacs it sparioas»
bfca— ■ be finds scarcely any verses m it that braatile
the spirit of Hoocr ; bat this is no deckiv* argoncnt,
as Homer night be the wont of all patadiUs, tbo^ili
the best Of anginal poets. The hTmm attributed to
attmtian, as, along with thoae dt
, thtf tarn « eorioos batoricd aMnaacBt
of tho Mpuv Mpantkiom oi MtXttfutj. UiifiNltt>
iHtcly, m die nuaaeiw cnllectiBii af then whicb
Qnfcc's Homer esbibits, there is ealy out ucihapa,
ria. the f^/wm to AfeUo, which b not apoCfjpMl ; and
the adialint vt Pindar throws doobts aroi opon that
am. Bm Thncydhha rNamised in that ode the
looeh of Honarie farioa, end the swlimyes of a scho-
liast baa certrinhr no right to be put in cpnpetitioo
with that of so elagam a writer. As to the cpignms
D occanaoally aacrraeo to hin^ ™^ carry
I proof of tbeir sparioaaneM. («)

HOMICIDE, (HmmmMmm), hi bw, b the kilfii«
of any human cmftare. Thb act b of three kinds, ao>
J to tba dranMtaoi hi whfab it b perpetrated,
Tifc>i(|»«r. iiiiniih. mifikmkm, or es^Mr.
• \mhlitmU* when the act b

r nnvddihle nwaasity, and infers nodtgrre
of g«ik or blame ; aa, Ifar OMtance, by virtue t4 soch
an dke aa obligca one, in tbe csecvticm of public Ja»-
tiea, to pa* to death a maklktor, who balh ftHHiad

hb filb by tbe lava and rerdict of hb coantry. Tlib
adbahocenaidafad iartilable m Mane case., either
ftr Ae ediaiKeiueMt ef pabKc jastice. or fcr tbe pre.
vimitei of some atneioaa crime.

I of some atneioaa crime.
Hesaiddr is rjrcaaaMr, when a pcrMn wgagMl in a
lawfU act u. withoot faitenlioa. the oaase af analber's
EzcBsable hamicide b of two kinds ; cUier Mr
^— , by nbihiBtiiia. erfc rfr/infciMfc, fa &,

defence, including homicide upon chance-rHtdUv, where-
by a man kills another, who assaults him, in the course
of a sudden brawl or quarrel.

Fflonious or culpabte homicide has different degrees,
wbxh distinguish the offence into manslaughter and
iriUul murder ; in the last of which, the act, being com-
mitted from malice and forethought, admits of no de-
fence, and subjects the criminal to the highest pun-
ishment of the law. See BUckstone ; Erskine ; and'
Hume Oh Crimfi. (i)

HOMOLOGOCS Siocs and Angles. See Geo-

MKTRY, vol. X. p. 214, col. I.

HOMOPHONI, in music, denotes the unison whose
ratio is 1=1, and whose expression in Fare/s noUtion
is 0. See Firat Minor.

HONAN. See China, vol. vi. p. 2U, col I.

HONDL'R.AS, or Hibi'KRas, a maritime province
of the Spanish kingdom of Guatimala in America,
whidi the Spaniards calculate to extend 1 85 Itsgues
from north to south, and 50 from east to west. The sur- Climate
face is in general mountainous, and is intersected by deep
vallies, conducting numerous rivers down to the sea ;
but part of the coast is extremely low and marshy.
A hot and humid atmosphere renders the province un-
heahhy, unless on the shore, where regular breeses re-
fhafa the inhabitants; and here epidemical diseases
rarely prevail. .Thunder showers are frequent during
the wannest season, sometimca raging with great vio-
lence. This province b penetrated hy a lar^ bay,
called the Bay of Honduras, to which our notice shall
be men particularly directed : the coast abounds in
dangers to the mariner from rocks and shoals ; and all
aloag iu nMrgia we keys, that is, peninsulas or promon-
torin^ brtwuu ertaks and the mouths of rivers. These
keys are known by dlfcaBt namea, m St George's
key, TumefT key, Anbfrgtaasf key, and the like ; and
some of the islands pasa by the same denomination.

Some anthors affim, tluft gold and silver are found Kaiuisl
in Honduras ; but, according to the late traveller Hum- pnidoc-
boldt, it scarcely presents any metallic mines. Vege- """•
tatioa b in renarkable luxuriance, and the niants nuroe-
raoa and iHrersified. Grapes are produceu twice a yeur
fVon the vines; sugar canes, coffee, cotton, and in-
digo, are aboiMlant, and also grain of several kinds ;
bat tbe inhabitants are too indolent to avail themselves
of the benefits of ruture. The most important plants, ^u,„__
in a f Bminettial view, are mahoganv and logwood ; the ' "'•'"''
Ibnaar b employed for all descriptions of furniture in
Brkaia and AaMrica, and Uir latter fur dyeing. Chiefly
tar the purpose of obtaining these two commodities, a
BH6A irttMnmt bn long neon eatablishe<l in the Bay
of Honduraa ; and a vast quantity of the former is ex-
potted annuallr. The mode oi* procuring it, is to
oispalch a skiffhl ocgra to dimb the hi/hest trees on
IoAt places, for the purpose of discovering mahogany
in tiie woods, which u generally solitary, and visible
at a gfaat dbtanre, fVora the yellowbh hue of its fo-
liage. A gang of (Vom ten to fiflv slaves is then sent
oat to ertet a acafibld around each tree that b select-

n, ilMt II H

J •<•« sMmt aa*a

awt.JiHi«tla<Uso*B

DM l«(M«liin 4m* not I

•MMSMSMfy to ksk Mr aay ssber (vncrsl taasi of lh« tnnn of iBto wort a-iih which ttdOMr tBoaiMl*, In com-
t «t1iw^ mat lyisaM* la Um yissssl mamntrt of tbow coumrW*. Kor. when rtrrj man Is In • IP*»I mrs-
•natb slasa af IMS <iHi ate Bsi aalr ■■*§ AaqesM, bM. Ia/W« saasiisatfw, lass cnsMaal iban in sel««Hs««
«a^irnrfiislMsr ii iwii a i» ibssaMaaaby.sai prttaiahOty lipisHiiliisi »— paMte jimk*. Whsrs
' •••■•• I— "W piiiiail fMaftij. »• ha*«ai«aia«*isw soskaMsaa sears laaarasasrtadMm ilMoaxm-

s» »W »o«M anniy no. la sucfc tssss. todMy swsaglb aiwt cwroga ssust dwWe ■«■» coalssla. »lais. na ifcs sUsr Imi
J""** '^.jy^'^l^ *• 'n*«*»sl» ■■i>iw sf ilM ««ak tgaiait llw Mrooc. In Ibc harals Hmm. honricid* wm m common,
last w« ■»■ tx ptai oiladlBf to a tni^ln mmimm uUat ttmttm nadsr lbs raof of a suaf^er, (M sseapt, ool puUic jusikt, but th« .
nisB(i •ribctstMioasef iM4MBasstf,)as»CaaBsresnn«aaslalift>
ML. zi. r aaa I. ■ —,m. .

HON

106

HON

MahngMiy.

Hnniluras. cd, and to cut it Jown about twelve feet from the
ground. When felled, the logs are, with much labour,
draj^rged to the banks of the streams, and being formed
into rafts sometimes of 200 united, are floated as many
miles, to places where the rivers are crossed by strong
cables, and then the owners separate their respective
shares. It is said that the boughs and limbs afford the
finest wood, but in Britain mahogany is more valued
on account of size ; and none is allowed to be exported
to the United States of America exceeding 20 inches in
Logwood, diameter. The logwood, on the other hand, affects low
swampy grounds, growing contiguous to fresh water
creeks and lakes, on the edges of which the roots, the
most valuable parts of the wood, extend. It is sought
in the dry season, and the wood-cutters having built a
hut in the vicinity of a number of trees in the same spot,
collect the logs in heaps ; and afterwards float up small
canoes in the wet season, when the ground is laid under
water, to carry them off. This is considered a very un-
healthy employment.
Animals. Many wild animals inhabit the province, among

which are two kinds of tiger as generally described ;
but they are more probably of the leopard species, the
Brasilian and black tiger. Both of them are fierce; they
are said sometimes to attack man ; but their depredations
are chiefly confined to cattle. The tapir, which is near-
ly the size of a small cow, is reputed to inhabit the
thickest parts of the forests in the neighbourhood of
creeks and rivers, and is very rarely to be seen by day.
There are different kinds of wild hogs, three species of
the armadillo, and numerous monkeys. Of birds may
be named the turkey, concerning whose native coun-
try naturalists have expressed doubts, but here it lives
in pairs in the most sequestered recesses of the woods,
and cannot easily be taken alive. It never survives in
captivity, and the young hatched from eggs, gene-
rally wander away to the original haunts of the mo-
thers. The toucan, oriole, macaw, and pelican, are
common. A great quantity of honey and wax are ob-
tained from the bees of this country, which construct
their combs in holes of the earth. The rivers abound
in fish ; and the manati and turtle are the constant ob-
jects of pursuit on the shores.
Inhabitantf. In regard to the inhabitants of Honduras ; the total
population of the province, consisting of natives, Ame-
ricans, Spaniards, and English, with African slaves, is
said to have diminished. We are quite ignorant of any
calculations as to its amount; but that cf the British
settlement in the Bay of Honduras, is computed at
about 3700 or somewhat more, of which there are 200
white inhabitants, rather more than 500 people of co-
lour and free blacks, and 3000 negro slaves. Neither
are we acquainted with the precise geographical limits
of the settlement, or the number, extent and position
of the towns belonging to the Spaniards. Formerly
the principal English establishment was at St George's
Key, which is a healthful and agreeable situation, still
containing a number of good houses, but now it is at
Balize, a town at the mouth of a river of the same
name, called Wallix by the Spaniards. It consists of
about 200 houses, many of which are spacious and well
finished ; all are built of wood, and for the most part
raised 8 or 10 feet from the ground on mahogany
p'.Ilars. An agreeable and picturesque effect is pro-
2 duced by groups of lofty cocoa trees, and the foliage

tf of the tamarind thickly interspersed, while they afford

to the inhabitants a grateful shelter from the fervour of
the sun. This town is accessible to an enemy only
J Irom the sea ; for it is totally tnv ironed behind by a

' morass, extending many miles into the country, which.

during the rainy season, is neai-ly covered with water. Hondurat,
A strong fort lately erected in a commanding situation Honey,
guards the channel of approach; and the inhabitants '~ iT™'
have formed a militia as a farther means of defence.

The jirincipal trade of the British settlement con- Trade,
sists in the export of mahogany, logwood, and tortoise
shell ; while the articles of import are chiefly for the con-
sumption of the settlers, being those of British manufac-
ture, and salted provisions for the slaves. They also
obtain cattle from the Spaniards, who, besides, carry on
considerable traffic in cotton bed-covers, which are
much esteemed in that province. The Bay of Hondu-
ras is reckoned a very favourable situation for trade ;
and the preservation of the settlement occasions no
expence to government, as the revenue somewhat ex-
ceeds the expenditure.

During the last and preceding century, the coast and History,
islands of Honduras were a great resort of pirates, who
found sufficient subsistence and concealment to ena-
ble them to commit their ravages against defenceles
vessels. On the largest island, called Ruatan or Rat-
tan, about SO miles long, rich and fertile, there is a
small Spanish outpost; but, according to Philip Ashton's
Memorial, it was uninhabited in 1723, Previous to
the year 1763, English mercantile adventurers had esta-
blished themselves on the coast, at which time the
court of Spain admitted them to remain on condi-
tion that their fortifications should be demolished.
However, all were taken prisoners or dispersed in 1782;
and having been enabled to return in 1781', under a
treaty with the Spanish government, they finally settled
at Balize. Here they remained undisturbed until the
year i 798, when the Spaniards having fitted out an ar-
mament, made an attempt to capture the town, Tliey
were speedily repulsed, and the colony has never since
had to dread any enemy. See Alcedo Diccionario ;
Uring's Voyages and Travels; Ashton's Memorial; and
Henderson's Account of the Settlement of Honduras, (c)

HONEY is a saccnarine vegetable secretion, most
abundant in the nectarium of flowers. Some authors
consider it an elementary principle of all vegetables
without exception : They suppose that it exists in every
part of plants, and that their life is dependent on its
presence. We do not know, however, that the saccha-
rine matter of plants is universally convertible into ho-
ney. It is much more copiously diffused in certain
flowers than in others, both of the same and of dif-
ferent species : in some it cannot be recognised, and
the weather has always a powerful influence on its se-
cretion. A hot and sultry atmosphere, charged with
electricity, is considered most favourable to the produc-
tion of honey. Honey seems to be of various quality,
sometimes of a grateful taste and odour, sometimes
pungent and bitter, or even of a deleterious nature,
which probably originates from the flowers.

This substance appears in its sensible shape when
collected by bees, a tribe of insects which may almost
be considered as reduced under the dominion of man.
But naturalists are not agreed whether honey under-
goes a particular elaboration in their bodies, thence de-
riving its flavour and consistence, or whether it is
merely collected and is still seen in its pristine state.
A bee having entered a flower, apparently absorbs
the liquid nectar by its proboscis, whence it is con-
ducted to an intestinal sac exclusively appropriated for
its reception, commonly called the honey bag. The
animal is then plump and cylindrical, and returning to
the hive, disgorges the contents into cells selected for
that purpose. By repeated Hccumulations the cell is
filled, and then sealed by concentric circles of the thin-

HON 107 H O O

i;«-»t WM, begun at tbe dretnaftrence and dosed in the which ii octremcly beautiful. It consisU chiefly of a Iloniioo

centra. There it ii kept, as i« (appcwed, for winter spacious and handsome street, running from east to jj *,,j

store; at least no other use is assigned to it: but we west, throafffa which passes the high road from Exeter .^,^,^

cannot be soficiently reserred m clasung disUnt anti- to Chard. Two other streets cross this at right angles,

ripations among the instincts of aninuu. It is prin- one on the north-west leading to Cullumpton, and the

cipally in the more civiti»e»1 countries that bees are other on the north leading to Taunton. Through the

cuafined m htrea. In manr places, they form their principal street flows a stream of pure water, which

cM^ba in tnuiks of tree*, and also in cavities of rocks, the inoabitants receive from a dippinf-placc opposite

■od tbe eutb. In India, there b a spedcs wbidi con- almost every door. The buildings, which are almost

■towta a tii^^ comb of rtrj large dimensions, attached all modem, were covered with slstc, in consequence of

to the under part of the beuch of a tree well shehered. the town having been twice destroyed by fire in 1747,

During winter, a great portJoo of the honey thtu pre- when three.fourths of it were reduced to ashes, and, in

served, it imdoublcdly oonsimed ; and it it understood 17fi5, when nearly 180 booaes were consumed. In

that the safety of an ordinary hive is endangered if 1790 and 1797. it snfoed considerably from fire.

there be a anialler qoantity than twelve poan<b at the There is a chapel in the town, called .\ll-Hallows cha.

end of antanin. Honey u supposed by some of the pel. which is a neat structuro, with a square embattled

moMacote naturalists, as Hubcr, to contain the prin. tower of flmt. It wa# built in \7C5. The church is

ctpica of wax. whence the bees Mn enabled to build situated on a high eminence, about three quarters of a

their eomba withoot ooOecling it flrom vegetables ; and mile from the town, and contains some ancient monu-

he itftfnim a method of arranging a luve, whereby ments. There is here a small ftee-achool for boys, and

they my be fotccd to work in thu subsunce. The a school of indusUy for girls ; and three meeting-houses

rditiTe propottiona of honey and wax in a hive are not for the Presbjrterians, Motists, and Independents.
Moertaincd; the latest observations allot about three or The town is governed by a portreve and baililT, who

tour pemda of wax to one hundred of honev. are cboaen annually. It sends two members to Parlia-

The finest bonc^ u collected by swanns leaving the meat. The number of voters is SAO. The chief articles

pMcnt hive, and it always becomca dvkcr and eoaner of nannlhcture here are broad laoe and etigings, whicii

in proportion to the age of the conbi. lis quantity and are principaUy aCnt to London. A great trade is cnr-

qoality, both depend very mach on the aatare of the ricoon in batter, which is also tent to the London
surrounding vegetation ; hence, in cultivating boH, par- market.

ticnlar attention should be paid to the ■fcw««*i««^ of The following is the population ab^rart of I.tl r dr

flowers. Honey and wn wn wry considHrBblc artidca the burgh and pniah :
^traffic, and proCt nay andoubtodly be derived ^m Naanbw of tatahitei houses.

bccB with little troaMe and trt<Kn|^ cxptttce. Moat NwbwrfSE^ ^^^^ I

sii^Bis?in::^wS*^^ Slt'*^*^ " '^'^^' • • • • ^^

»«T well dispense by a little n-^ — — -"•■no to bees. Pml^ ' * lli-i

mwbly ten timca the number ■ iw existing fwamim, t*oo

enddbesabsistsdin the ca«tntr>. :... .luisb. a late t^.i .„^.\.,i^ .««-

•lOhor, by a moderate cakmlatioi, cndcavoors tosfiew. ^'*'' popuUtK>n. ,'7^.,

dMt in the yeax 1917. the oroflt from -- ' •-.p par. ^- ■' ' vhelc's llulorg of Dnonthire ; and the Beau-
rhili I in I8I« thoMid be tsn : 15 : i ten re- . land and tVattt, vol. iv. p. ^.

oaiin to carry on the stock. He cmi«i(irn tiie chief innii. See VrrcRiNi^Ry .MrutciKE.
obrtacle to the cultwe of bees, to emtre m the nai of HOOCHLY, a river in Bengal, and the port of Cal-
AecomnMn hive; and thrt. on the whole, it is better cntta, is formed by the Junctian of the Cosaimbasar and
ttetbqrshenUbodortroTed at the end of the season. JHlingfay, the two wcMamrnaat branches of the Ganges.
The cosnbabeiiig withdrawn from t' are to The Hoogfaly, thoogb by no mcuis the largwt btsacfa,

be hid on a flne rirro above a vessel, ch the bM the dMpcat outlet to the sea, and ia oonaiderad by

hart honey wiD b* iwedvid : gentle beat will dben. the Hindoos aa the true Ciangca, or nMSt sacred part of

gage tfMT not in yatty ; nd the whole rcmdhtng that rivar. It u the only branch which is commonly

— *f»*y ^ ?""?^2*' *"* |>««^ whmby the re- nav^plad by farna vcomIs ; but iu entrance and pas.

■dndar win be iifmtid A catahi gwawtity of wax sage are aai>efth3<» extremely dangerous, not so much

ssid Oher uu|wiltw always peso over ^endera from the shaflowmai of the cnannd, as ftwn the num-

^^ri^tfmrj to mtm ^a htmrj etmA:^. :!ievca. her of the sndi^aalu which project into the sea. At

sett agahi to best, and this admiu tbnr rising to itt janetion particularly with the noopnarrain, there is

tbew&ce. when the whole can be rmosed. The a luge ahMt of water tarmcfl. which is full of shoals ;

ptttifc^Ai of honeyia amdiHtad after a diftnat jao. ad. as the bod of the Hooghly turns to the right, ma.

ceaa, accwding to the conntty wherein it is ptactiMd : ny vessels are lost, by being carried, with the force of

snd prmfaont have farm oJfrrv-I for the hart mode of the tidc^ up the Roopnarrain, which more directly faces

dcsng w ca the contjnent lluticy should be choaen the approach from the sea There is also, at tliis beud

of an agreaaUeodoar, sweet, d«r, and new ; hut it of the Hoo){lily, a dangrmus sand named the Jamca

may he prr^rrrH a yrv oelMigcr in the cotnti. tiHt re. and M»rv jr.Mind whidi the channel seldom continues

*■*" ' JS*^*l^'*- See Hub«- . tlx? u l>t iJm* in sncoeesion, and requires very

«^: TTfittitr tm Bt€$: Rea /*- frequ.:.: >«. The bore, which oosnfr '

*•"■ 'TowiBfes; and our article Hooghly point, where tlie river first contrar;

"" ^ percepUbleslw— 'I- •■■wjiof Moop^"- --';,,, imir*

. "' 'wn of England, distant ; ami so >e nnvrr- le, tliat it

'" " ••■,i.,i. tintma passes through : t m £ur nuuro. it does not

Otter, run mi the Calt i I'ut proceeds along the oppo>

•—'—^ o~ •* t-voatry, site bank, from whkh u crosses at Chitpoor, about four

H O O

108

H O O

II
Hookc.

miles above Fort William, and rushes with great vio-
lence past Bamagore, Duckinsore, &c. At Calcutta,
, it sometimes occasions an instantaneous rise of five feet,
and, upon its approach, it is necessary for boats to quit
tJie shore, and go for safety into tne middle of the
river, (o)

HOOGHLY, a district in the province of Bengal,
extends along both sides of the river Hooghly, and is
situated principally between the 20° and 23° of North
Latitude. It is hounded on the north by the districts
of Burdwan and Kishenagur; on the south, by the sea;
on the west, by Midnapoor ; and on the east, by Jes-
sore, and the Sunderbunds. It consists entirely of low,
flat, and fertile land ; but, though one of the earliest of
the East India Company's acquisitions, and immediate-
ly adjoining to the town of Calcutta, where a constant
market is found for its produce, three fourths of it still
remnin in a state of nature, the habitation of alligators,
tigers, and reptiles. The division nearest to the sea,
particularly, is covered with jungle, and is remarkably
unhealthy, and thinly inhabited. Salt of an excellent
quality, (and possessing, in the opinion of the natives,
a peculiar sanctity, because extracted from the mud of
the most sacred branch of the Ganges,) is manufactured
on the coast for the government. The whole district
is intersected by rivers, so as to render it capable of
complete inland navigation ; but these remote streams
are greatly infested by river pirates, who rob in gangs,
and frequently apply torture for the purpose of extort-
ing the discovery of concealed property, (q)

HOOGHLY, an ancient town in the last mentioned
•province, situated on the west side of the river of the
same name, about 26 miles above Calcutta, in North
Latitude 22° 54', and East Longitude 88" 28'. It was
a place of considerable importance under the Mogid
government, and was the seat of their custom-house for
collecting the duties of merchandize carried up the
western branch of the Ganges. It is now comparative-
ly of little note, but still tolerably flourishing, and well
inhabited. The French, Dutch, Portuguese, and
Danes, had originally factories at Hooghly ; and, in
I6;52, while in the possession of the Portuguese, it was
the scene of the first serious quarrel between the Mo-
guls and Europeans. After a siege of three months
and a half, it was carried by assault by the Mogul ar-
my, and the greater part of the Portuguese were put
to the sword, or taken prisonei's. In 1640, the Eng-
lish were permitted to build a factory at this place ;
but their trade was greatly restricted, and subject to
continual exactions. In l6'S6, they were involved in
hostilities with the native powers, in consequence of a
quarrel between some of their soldiers and those of the
nabob ; and though peace was speedily restored, they
withdrew their settlement to Chittanuttee, or Calcutta.
See Bruce's Annals of the East India Compaiuj ; Ren-
nol's Memoir of a Map of Hiiidoslan ; Lord Valentia's
Travels ; and Hamilton's East India Gazetteer. ((^)

HOOKAH is the name of a pipe for smoking, in
great use among eastern nations. It consists of a glo-
bular vessel of glass, nearly filled with water, in which
two tubes are inserted ; a perpendicular one which holds
the tobacco, and an oblique one to which the mouth is
applied. The smoke is thus rendered peculiarly agree-
able, by passing through the water.

HOOKE, Robert, an eminent natural philosopher,
was born at Freshwater, on the west side of the Isle of
Wight, on the 18th July 1635, and for the first seven
years of his life was in a very infirm state of health.
His father, who was the minister of the parish, edu-

cated him under his own roof, as he had been such
a sickly child that he was not expected to live. He
was at first intended for the church, but after begin-
ning the Latin grammar, his health became so weak,
and he was so much subject to headacl-e, that his
parents despaired of making him a scholar. Being
thus left to the direction of his own genius, he amused
himself in the formation of toys, and be even succeeded
in the construction of a wooden clock, that exhibited
in a rough manner the hours of the day, and in the
formati(jn of a full rigged ship, about a yard long,
which had a contrivance for firing some small guns
as it sailed across a piece of water. Tliis circum-
stance led his parents to the resolution of putting him
an apprentice to a watcli- maker, or a painter; but by
the death of his father in 16iS, r.either of these plar's
were adopted. He was placed, indeed, for a time ur-
der the celebrated painter Sir Peter I.ely ; but he soon
found from experience, that he had chosen a profession
which the state of his health would not allow him to
prosecute. He was therefore sent to Westminster
school, and was kindly taken into Dr Busby's house,
where he made great progress in Latin, Greek, He-
brew, and other oriental languages. He made also
considerable progress in Euclid, and, as Wood infonns
us, he invented and communicated to Dr Wilkins MtV/y
different modes nfflijiiig !

In the year lo50 according to Mr Wood, and 1653
according to Mr Waller, he went to Christ's Church, Ox-
ford. In 1()5S he was introduced to the Philosophical
Society there. He was employed to assist Dr Willis
in his chemical experiments ; and he afterwards la-
boured several years in the same capacity with Mr
Boyle. He received instructions in a.stronomy from
Dr Seth Ward, Savilian professor of that science in
Oxford, and was henceforth distinguished for the in-
vention of various astronomical and mechanical instru-
ments, and particularly for the air-pump which he con-
trived for Mr Boyle.

In consequence of perusing Ricciolus's>i/»nage4<, which
Dr W^ard put into his hands, l>e was led, in the years
1656, 1657, and 1658, to the invention of the balance
or pendulum spring, one of the greatest improvements
which has been made in the ai-t of horology : (See
HonoLOGV, chap. iii. p. 137.) He mentioned this
discovery to Mr Boyle, who, as Dr Hooke remarks,
" immetiiately after his Majesty's restoration, was plea-
sed to acquaint the Lord Brouncker and Sir Robert
Moray witli it, who advised me to get a patent for the
invention ; and propoimded very probable ways of
making consideraible advantage by it. To induce them
to a belief of m)' performance, I shewed a pocket- watch,
accommodated with a spring applied to the arbor of the
balance to regulate the motion thereof. This was so well
approved of^ that Sir Robert Moray drew me up the
form of a patent ; the principal part whereof, viz. the
description of the watch so regulated, is in his own
hand-writing, which I have yet by me. The discou-
ragements I met with in the management of this affair,
made me desist for that time." In the agreement be-
tween Dr Hooke, Mr Boyle, Lord Brouncker, and Sir
Robert Moray, which seems to have been drawn up
about 1 663, it was provided, that out of the first £ 6000 of
profit, Dr Hooke was to have three-fourths; of the next
£W00, two thirds ; and of the rest, one half: but the
other partners in the patent very improperly in-
sisted upon the insertion of a clause, giving to any of
themselves the sole benefit of whatever improvement*
they might majte upon his invention.

Hooke.

»

^

H O O K E.

101)

r fivM tfafM by the

Itra^ikical, apd aatfooMaical, aada baibra tb* Rojal
Nxirty on MTcral oocaMona, at GmkMB CoUrg* ; to
which wc aild««l ilitrr. mttccllaMaHdiMmnaM.'' Od
ih* llib JanoAi ' • Bojni SoMtjr Httkd

bin a mkrj of Ji ... r-. mbmb fer Mr, lor hk
— COTterof tiMiMwiitt; MdanlbeaOibarif«cbcf
th« HMw j«wr, b« WM aopoiMcd to MMCMd Or Owm M
p>a(ntar amtcmttrf m CriihiM CoOtg*. In thtTcar
1 665. HoalM ybi»*'»*« ^ " Mkntrmykm. or wt pby.
•iotofpokl dacfiptMBi of liniiU badit% wrta bjr ■•(>■

M mmI cnqmriM Uicr»>
I Ibk work wcr* dnwn with
rasany of tbaaa tn m kiad of MmuL
ani laiMiaaiHatiuiia. which b««« bean oopi«cl by tocw
aMbofs. Hm bwt aa« Ukm of the coBaaa
gnat, and taH, A sew edkien of k
wab ablaaataliil daacnpliaM ifipand ta 1745. in
which dw bwawcya, tba bygnaoop*, and tba engine

3

mfjriaw glaaaw, wtib obaar
opoo.' All the ignraa In

bia own baatl, ana many o

About the aamc tirce Hooke contrived the circular
Bendulim, whkfa waa «htwn to the Royal Society in
itifiS, and which was aArrwartls cUiaacd by Hoygcna.
Thia pcndulnni, which ia deacribed in Hooke'a Ani-
■Mdvcniona on the Umtkimm Ctkali* at He\plius, doc«
not Tibtate bacfcwaida and figrwwda, bat alwtgra in a
cfade, " the atrinc being annndod above «t the tripe-
dal length, and tb ball ixcd bdoar. na knppoae at the
endortheflyof • comman jack. The motion of thia
circular pctMlulam ta aa regular, and nuwb the aame
with tbi»e mcntianad beloce ; and waa made to give
warning at any noinmt of itt circnmcTfatian, either
when it h^ tuned but a quarter. * hdr, or anr leaacr
ur greater part of its eirde. So that here you had no-
tice not only of a aerond. but of the moat minute port
of a fecond of time." See Derfaam'a Artijidat Clock- one
aaairr, p. 97.

The ertabKahncnt of the Rciyal Society in 1660, af<
faded to Or Hooke numcraua oMNetanitira of extend-
ing hta repuution. He pnbliJiad in lfi60, a amall
tract on the aacent of water in amall tnbca by capillary
attraction, in wlii<J> he ahcwed that the height of the
water waa in a certain ueupurtion to tbair Mtea. A
debate aroke on thia aubjcct in the Boyal SodeMr in
April \GHi\ ; iMit Hooke'a raptira ware conaidcraa ao
aetiafartiij. and raiaed him ao bigb in the eatimation of
the Society, that in l668 be waa appointed cunrtor of
miiiiianii to that diatlngnialiad body. He waa abo
one of the 96 nenooa who were dodarrd membera of
the Rayal Swfttr. at a meitbigaf thecoocibeldlfay
mh, Ititt, by virtao of the povi
chmtar ftr two aaontba. He waa adhnitiad la
tittf aa tfaa M of Jane; and waa pacaliaHy
ftaaaaaaajmwla. In the aame year be toak fail da.
r ef Maalar of Aita, and the BapuMtary of liw Royal
fai the WhitaGdkryofOiaaiHa Caihga waa
' tahtaava. Abaat tUa tiaw he drew ap a
liat «f awqaliim fee ibe am af ibnae who aught have
oceaaion to viait Graenbad or fraland Tbam wWcb
roipect Iceland era nuaaaraaa^l imeroaiing; and ana
iif Itiiai ia pailiiatailj ilamiiiaa of luitlfr •• Whether
•niriuep|Mari in what ahapat wKat ibcv aay and do; any
thing of tW kind rery ii lamlrahW, ana af good qedit r
In May ItiM he deli«cr«l tlw aatranaadal lartart at
CfwlMm Callwe r«e Or P^ who waa abaaaft hi
Italy} and in lie aaaw year Sw Jebn Catler gava Mm

marhawical laitattaw andar the diractiay af tba Boyal

Ma^ ia l«79l aader tba tMaaf » Lwiimra CwUtrimm,
of lictama, pbyacalL

for grinding optic glanee, were wholly orailted. Du-
ring the receaa of the Royal Society, on account of the
plague in l665, he accompanied MrWilkinsand other in-
genioua authors into Surry, where they continued their
philoaophical labours. In lfS65, at one otthe first mcet-
mga of the Royal Society, Dr Hooke produced a very
amaO quadrant for obaerving the minutes and second:!, by
meana of an arm moved with a screw alon^ the limb of
the quadrant. Hw explanation of the inflexion of a direct
into a curvilineal motion, waa read to the Society on the
83d May 1066.

On the 19th of September I666, he laid before
the Royal Society a model for rebuilding the city of
London, which waa deatrcgred by the great fire ; but
though hia plan waa not comcnted, he waa appointed
of the surveyors under the act of parliament ; a si-
tuation in which lie realixed a considerable sum of mo-
ney, which was found after his death in a large iron
cheat, that appeared to have been shut up for SO
yeara. The irritable temper of our author now in-
volved him in several quarrels, in alt of which he con-
ducted himaelf with impropriety. In our life of Heve-
liua, we have alrmdy given an account of his contro-
versy with that aatronomer reapecting the compara-
tive merits of plain and teleacopic sights. In 1671, he
attacked Newton'a theory of li^Oit and colours ; and in
1675 he had a. warm dispute with Mr Uldenburg, the
aacretary to the Royal Society, in consequenccof his pam-
phlet, entitled. " A Ocacription of Helioscopes, and some
other lastraments, made by Robert Hooke," in which
beoeaiplaioatfaatOidmdNirg liad not done him justice re-
tptrtiffg hia ianwiliaa of nen<iulum watches. The dis-
■nalad by a dacwration of the Royal Socic^,
tbapartoftlMirMcntary. In lti76, he pub-
•• Daaniptinn of lialiaerMfi, and sobm other
laalmaaalik** a work wUch cantama aiaBy carioaa in*
vwitiiaM, aoBM of which are deacribed in anagrama.
Upon the death of Oldenburg in 1677, Hooke waa ap>
pointed to the vacant office of secretary ; and while he
AaM that aituation, be pnblialSod between 1679 and
I6B1 the seven numbers of the PktUuopltiail CoUte-
liaaa, which have alwaya been ngafded aa a partaf
tba PbileaopUeal Tianaactioaa.

tbeaabMalpaoviriuwmof his temper
qnita Itabtabh : He daiaied as his
own the iovantiono aad dtaeawiea of everr rthrr per-
aon ; and he became ao rcaervad in coam hia

own UboarstatbepablictbattlMagbhe T' ' <itle.

fian lacliiin,aBd aibibitad now inv« 1 ..e Kojal

, yet bo novae left any acooi. < ra to be

in the rrgiiters. Whrii tiie /Vtucinie aiiprared
in I0n6. be laiil claim to the dtfcovery c/the doctrine
of gravitation, a claim which waa warmly resented by
Sir Isaac Newton. Hooke, no doubt, had the merit of
itating, that f^vitation «s« tl.r |M>wrr which kept the
planeta in their orbits, and he even marie some rsperi-
menta to determine the law by which it was regulated;
but what a vast interval is there between thia contccture,
baapy aa it is, and the iplcadtd diaeoverica of Newton I
In the year I«>87 he raffertd a aevere loaa by the
death of hia farather'a daughter, Mra Grace Hooke.
who had livad aevcral years with him ; and the disttcaa
of hia mind wm atiU farther incrcaaed by a Chancery
suit with Sir John Cutler reapoctina hu salary. In
1()91, Archbiahop Tilknaoo rmphNrea him in rontriv-
iog the plan of the hmpital near rioston, founded by
Robert Ash; and out of gratitude for hit services, that
diotingniahed artiate obtained for him the degree of
M.D. WhmttaClMBcaryaajt with Sir John CttUcrwM

Houke.

H O O

110

H O O

Uooke, {letermined in hig favour in 1696, he was so overjoyed,
^^'Y^^ that he left an account of his feeHngs in Ijis diary, ex-
pressed in the following manner : " Domshloissa,
that is, Deo, optimo, maxima, sit honor, laus, gloria in
aaecula saculorum. Amen." " I wjis born on this day
of July 16"3.5, and God hath given me a new birth;
may I never forget his mercies to me ! while he gives
me breath may I praise him !" In order to induce
him to complete some of his inventions, the Royal So-
ciety requested him, in IGQG, to repeat most of his ex-
periments at their expence, but the infirm state of his
health prevented him from complying with their re-
quest. During the two or three last years of his life
he is said to have sat night and day at a table, so much
engrossed with his inventions and studies, that he never
undressed himself or went to bed. Emaciated with
the gradual approach of old age, he died in Gresham
College on the 3d March 1 702, in the 87th year of his
age, and was buried in St Helen's church. Bishops-
gate Street, his funeral being attended by all the mem-
bers of the Royal Society who were then in London.

Besides the works which we have mentioned, he
published in 1677 his Lamjias, or Descriptions of some
mechanical improvements in lamps and water poises.

The most important of Dr Hooke's inventions, was
undoubtedly the method of regulating watches by the
balance-spring, which has since his time been carried
to the highest perfection. Huygens has commonly been
considered as the author of this invention, but there is
no doubt that Hooke had invented it about 14 years
before. The posthumous works of Dr Hookc, collect-
ed from his papers by Richard Waller, secretary \o the
Royal Society, witli a life of the author prefixed, were
published in 1705. Another life of Hooke was pub-
lished in Ward's Lives of the Gresham Vrqfessors,
p. 109. Lond. 1740. The papers which Hooke con-
tributed to the Philosophical Transactions, will be
found in volumes i. ii. iii. v. vi. ix, xvi. xvii. and xxii,
of that work.

The following list of Dr Hooke's inventions is taken
principally from a MS. of the late Dr Robison, profes-
sor of natural philosophy in the university of Edin-
burgh.

1 655. Hooke discovered that the barometer indicated
changes in the atmosphere, and was connected with the
weather. Before the year 1652 the same discovery
was made by the Rev. Mr Gregory of Drumoak. See
our Life of James Gregory, vol. x. p. 506. note.

1655. Contrived the clockmaker's cutting engine.

1656. Contrived a'scapement for the small vibrations
of pendulums.

1656. Invented the spiral spring for regulating the
vibrations of a watch bal.ince.

1658. Conti-ived the Boy lean or double barrelled
air-pump.

1660. Used the conical pendulum for procuring a
minute division of time.

1660. Explained capillary attraction by affinity.

1660. Found that the catenarian curve was the best
form for an arch.

1663. Invented his marine barometer and sea gage;
and also the method of supplying air to the diving bell.

1664. Invented a quadrant by reflexion, and a clock
for registering the weather.

166'1-. Proposed the freezing of water in a fixed tern-
perature ; and in 1684 the boiling of water as another
fixed point.

1664. Applied a screw for dividing astronomical in-
struments.

1665. Proposed to find the earth's parallax by means
of a zenitli telescope, also by observing the moon in dis-
tant places, and in a solar eclipse.

1666. Nov. 28. Invented the spirit level.

1 668. Proposed his theory of combustion. See hia
Micrographia and Lampas.

166^. I'roposed a pendulum, or a drop of water as a
standard measure. Proposed a camera obscura with a
lamp.

1674. Invented the areometer.

1 674. Tried the famous experiment with Newton on
the inflexion of light.

1678. Proposed a steam engine on Newcomen's prin-
ciple.

1 679- Shewed that the path of a falling body com«
pounded with the earth's motion is an ellipse.

1 680. First observed the secondary vibrations of sound-
ing bodies ; — that a glass touched with a fiddle bow
threw water into waves at four points, and that the fun-
damental sound was accompanied with its harmonics.

1682. Observed the separability of heat and light by
a glass plate.

1687. Observed the rapid propagation of sound
through solid bodies.

Hooke appears also to have been the first who ex-
plained the rise of vapour by a dissolving power in the
air, and who took a just view of the arrangement of
iron filings round a magnet. See Hevelius and Huy-
gens. (jr)

HOOKER, Richard, an eminent English divine,
was born at Heavitree, near Exeter, in the year 1553,
or, according to Wood, in 1554. His parents, who
were by no means in affluent circumstances, intended
to educate him for some mechanical trade ; but his
schoolmaster at Exeter, having discovered his natural
endowments and capacity for learningj prevailed witii
them to allow him to continue at school. His uncle,
John Hooker, wlio was then chamberlain of the town,
recommended him to Jewel, bishop of Salisbury, who,
after examining into his merits, took him under his
protection, and got him admitted into Corpus Christ!
College, Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow in
1577. Before this last period, however. Hooker had
the misfortune to lose his patron ; but his talents and
excellent disposition soon procured him other valuable
friends in Dr Cole, then president in his college, and
Dr Sandys, bishop of London. The bishop placed
so much confidence in Hooker's chai-acter, that he en-
trusted his own son to his care.

In 1577, Mr Hooker took his degree of M. A., and
in the same year he was elected fellow of his college.
In 1579j he was appointed deputy-professor of the
Hebrew language in the university ; but for some
cause, which cannot now be ascertained, he and some
others were expelled the college by the vice-president,
to which, however, they were again restored in the
course of two or three weeks. In 1581, he entered
into orders, and was soon after appointed to preach at
St Paul's Cross in London. Through the great sim-
plicity of his character, he was, about the same time,
entrapped into a foolish and unfortunate marriage with
a woman who had neither beauty nor portion to re-
commend her, and who has been represented by Wood
as " a silly clownish woman, and withal a mere Xan-
tippe." In consequence of this imprudent step, he
lost his fellowship, and was obliged to quit the univer-
sity before he had obtained any preferment. He was
therefore obliged to support himself as well as he could,
until the latter end of the year 1584 ; when he was

Hooke,
Hooker.

H O O

111

H O R

fiwiitwl by John Cheuey. Eaq. to the rectory of Dny-
too-Beandump^ in BackiiwfaiuiMhire. whcr« be led a
nuwt anoDmrortable life with hi* wife Joan. In lltii
aitiwtkMi, he icceivcd a Tint frotn hi* rriend and popU
Sandys, in coapMiy with another panii, Mr Cranaer,
■ fnoA-mitfbtm t£ the celebrated Arcbbiahoe Cnuuner.
Tbea* yoong lacii finnd their learned and rtiperteil
tatir in m oombmb 6ekl, with a Horace in hi* hand,
a «bhI1 flock of ahaep, in the abteaoe of hia
, wiio had be«B oriied away to awitt hia mittrea*
in aoMe inwiitir hawneaa. When reWawd firam thia
dnty, hia frienda aar— pwiiri hta to hia houo. where
thOT had an iyot«nly of witnwaiiy the rexation
■aanaiaery towSah he wia ii— liiuli wlyctad, from
the dwriidi md raprici— a anndnrt rf hia wife, Upon
their ratnm to f^iwdnw, Mr Scadya acg—'aitiid hit fa-
ther with Hooker'a dephmbk Amtaan. who look a

■d Mt him aapoiated
oftheTea[ifli.ia IJSft. AMmMjh tUa waa a
—a ntece of pi rfeniiii<. Hooker aoaBaeovcfcd that
Loadni waa not a place tiial faiicd Ua laa|»er and die-
poaitjon ; and tevcnl circvaMtaaon caoiBirad to ex-
cite in hhn the deaire of ebtannqf the iHimiwiit of a
cuiuiti> livin;;. At the time when he waa cfaoaen OH^
ter of the Temple, he got involred in a CMUtigrawy
with Tiwran, m thmwmo loclwer thera< a vama, K

attached to tht Gnwea gotanaaaBl. Iliia esntiveany

the IbaadatiaB aad p^ «f which w«m kid
WW at tha TeaqriB. Bat in thia raadinw ha Ibaad
<f taiiyiag ea tha week to Ma owa

Ihai
WhitKifk. to reaiara U
m alettarwUch

.which!

oThii chaiMtar. •* Uj lord," aaya' he, " whan I loat
I ft my ocU, wiikh waa my flallaga, yat I
daaraoof it in aiyqaialcaanlnr paaaaaaa.

Bat 1 MB ^M7^ tha aaiM^d oMkiaM^dM

fcrniiitaariuia. bat for rtady mi iidniw. Aad,
"^ 'f^V? PHticatar ceatana haia with Mr TWata

UawbitobaagDodBM: aad liM bdiaT hath oc

paiioaidwutoeia— ni

inf hianiaiiiii And to aatidy thai. I

the Holy Scfiptoiaa, aad alher kwa, both haaaa aad

divine, whethar tha nnnariim of Ida^ aad othan of

hia JBiiyr. oaght to ba ■> te aoipiiad wtlh by aa^

aa to aMr oar naa af dhaRb^Baanaaaa^ oartoa»

aarafOadH aiiiMii.aar pwiiJMMdpiwfaw tohia^

1 1— iaiiai AJI laqaiw m. And hi tUa
I bar* aot cakp aMiiiad niyaeif, but bava bmai a
tiac, hi which I nttcad the toliAfliiiii of oUmi% by a
ilemonatfatioB of the rrainnrddaaia of oar lawaaf c<v
ckMaticypali^. Bat» on lord. 1 ihaU never be able
toiBUi««atIbOT*b(aaa, nakae I bo mnevad hito
aaaw qaiet pvaaaaga^ wtaa I nay tee GodTk Uaaai^
aprinf oat ofay tojthar aacth, aad eat my own bmd
to pMce aad mhaay ( a pliBi. whve I may will
Ma mr ■piiathiin' mortality.

J wMek aO flaA araat aiva at uie

dOT to tho God afaO toWta."

IB coaaaqnance of thiaqqilicatioD, be waa prawntod.

in 1591, to the rectory of Boscomb, in Wlltfhtre ; and
io the sanie year, he obtained other valuable prefer-
iaeut« in the cathedral of Sulisbury. At Boecorob be
finithwl ftMir books of hi« Ecrletiatlical Polilif, whioh
were entered at StationerVhall in the month of Maiq)l
1592, but not printed till 139^- In the following ye^"
he quitted Botoomb, and was presented by Queen Eli*
sabeth to the rectory of Biahop'^i Bourne, in Kent, whaae
he resided during tiie remainiler of his life, disrhargiiw
the duties of his office in the must conscientious and
exemplary manner. In this place he coin|>ose<l the
fifth book of his great work, which was dedicated to
the archbishop, and published by itself in 1597. He
also finished the 6th, 7th, and Sth books, but did not
live to publish them ; and it has been mudi disputed
whether we have these booka genuine as he left thero.
In the year 1600, he camjht a severe cold, in a passage
between London and Gravesend, which produced a
liiweriiw and painful illness, that at k-ngth put a pe-
riod to his life, in the 47th year of his a^e. He tlied
on the 3d of Ne\-cmber IbOa Notwithstanding the
severitT of his indispoaition, he penevered in his studies
to the last. A few days before nis death, his hotiae waa
robbed. When informed of thnt rircunutance, he en-
quired whether his books and written papers were safe;
utd being aiuwercd that thev were, " then," said he,
" it awMars aot, for no other loss can trouble me."

Tha paranadi chandcr of Hooker nuy be gathered
IWmi tha waoadhft narrative of his life. A* an author,
tha fhaiA ia indabtad to him 6r the moat pnlbaod
aad ifaaiaaa dcfaaea of aodaaiaaiieal aatobUahmeqto
that hm ovar apnaand. Hia tnatim on EctUtitittioal
PaMtf, iaJtiaii, baa bean odmirad both at botna and
abfoad, oa a work of daep and extensive research, aad
of acNte and toaad reaaaning ; and the author lias been
uaivcraallT diattaguiabcd bv the honovrable titles of
" the judicioaa," and •• the Uaraed." Of this valuaUa
week, Popa Claaoent VIII. is renoctad to bavo arf4
that " thero ware in it such see<lt of eternity as wifl
eoaliaaa till the last Are shall ilcvoor all learning."
Whaa Kiiy Janea I. aacaaded the throne '-•' r- -' tuI,
ho ia arid to bavo mkod Arehbiahop U r !.ia

Aiaad Mr Hooker; and betng anawercd, Umi m had
died a year beiore the auaen, whocxpraased grrat con.
ocro whan aba raeeived the nawi, be replied, " And I
neaivo it with no loai, m I shall want the desired hap.
piaaH af aaaing aad tliaeoaisiito with that man, fram
whoaa boaka or daath poKy Ihavo loeaived such a*,
tidhctian." Ho aftaiaawh added. " though many

Ho aftaiaawh" added. " tbou^ many
write well, yet in tho next age they wUl be for^
•ottoa ; bat. dniditloas, there is in every page of Mr
Hoakat'a boidt tho picture of a divine aoul; such pio>
dt tntk aad maaoa, and drawn in ao aacrad ci^

, that they ahoU novcr fiaie^ bat givo an immortal
— ^ tothaairtbar."

k tho a%ht books of EtrUaiaHicai Poikw, and
hia aaawar to Trayera'e SmppUimlhn, Hooker left souc
which ware oolleetod and published with bis
works in folio. An octavo edition lus also bean print.
cdatOxfiird. fr)

HCMX

Hoo
If

Ba>

■ Chi?(a, voL vi. p. 21 i.

)0. See CiiiHA, voL vi. p 311.

iLTCKK, vol. L p. 419: and

i.sTica FtArc I >, one of the

rnn poets, was txirii .it Ve-

t' Apulia II '1,

inthaeoii , . ,^ „ita and M^ i /r-

quatot. His father was the son of a frrrdman, and fol<

H O R

112

H OR

Horace.

lowed the employment of a tax-gatherer. This was
the poet's own account, and most likely to be true.
Some of his enemies, however, reproached him with
his father having been a fishmonger {Salsnmenlariu.i),
•nd one of them said to him, Quoties egn vidi palran
tuum brachio se immungentem. His father, however,
though of humble origin, appears to have been a man
of liberal sentiments, and to have given his son an ex-
cellent education, as the son has recorded in these lines
to honourable to the memory of both :

•' Cauia fuit pater his : * qui macro pauper agello
Noluit in Klavi ludum me niitterc, magni
Quo piieri magni- o ccnturionibus orti
Leva suspcnsi Imulos tabiilamquc lacerto,
Ibatit octoms reftrentes Idibus sera :
Sed pueruin est ausus Komam portare docendum,
Artcs, quas doceat quivis eques, atque senator
Semet prognatos : vestem servosque sequentes
In magno ut populo si quis vidisset ; avita
Ex re pra^beri suniptus niihi crcderct illos.
Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnes
Circiim doctoies adcrat, quid multa ? pudicum
(Qui primus virtutis honos) servavit ab omni
Non solum facto, verum opprobrio quoque turpi.
• • • * *

Nil me pceniteat tanum patris hujus." . . . •

Sat. VI. LIB. 1.

At the age of eighteen, Horace was sent to Athens, for
the purpose of finishing his education, by the study of
philosophy and Greek literature. Whilst he was in
that city, Marcus Brutus, in his way to Macedonia,
stopped at the university, and, being pleased with Ho-
race, took him along with him on his journey. Brutus
afterwards entrusted a legion to his care as military tri-
bune. As the poet, in his writings, freely confesses,
that he had no great genius for fighting, it may be sus-
pected, that it was by his wit and companionable ta-
lents that he had ingratiated himself with Brutus. At
the battle of Philippi, he describes himself, with some
humour, as throwing away his shield, to be disencum-
bered in Iiis flight. By the victory of the opposite par-
ty, his property was forfeited, but his life was spared.
In his indigence he wrote verses, and so recommended
himself to Virgil and Varius, that, with the generosity
of true poets, they recommended him to Maecenas. At
the first interview with that noble patron, as he tells us
in the satire already quoted, he behaved with diffidence,
and simply told Maecenas what he was. The nobleman,
as was his custom, said little in reply, and did not send
for him again till nine months after, when he admitted
him among the number of his friends, and made him
easy in his circumstances. Horace proved so agreeable
to Maecenas, that he made him his familiar Companion,
in which capacity he accompanied him to Brandusium,
in that journey which the poet has so agreeably de-
scribed in verse. He also introduced him to Augustus,
who delighted in his society, and used to call him ko-
muncio Icpidissimus. When seated between Virgil and
Horace, the emperor used to say, that he was between
sighs and tears; alluding to the uneasy respiration
which afflicted Virgil from a chest complaint, and to
Horace's tender eyes. Horace was certainly a courtier,
and he did not lay on his flattery in faint colours ; nor
does he seem to have troubled his piitrons with any re-
currence to those maxims of public liberty, which he
must have learned with Brutus, and which had led him
into the field of Philippi ; but, on the other hand, he
makes allusion to great republican names with the spi-
rit of a Roman and of a poet ; and he lived among the

great with personal independence, for he declined the
post offered to him by Augustus of being his private
secretary.

The incidents of his life are few. His person is de-
scribed as short and inclined to corpulence, and his
temper as easy and obliging. He pas«ed his time be-
tween Rome, his Tiburtine or Sabine villa, and the soft
climate of Tarentum, to which he fled in winter.
Though an Epicurean enjoyer both of society and of
sensual pleasures, his writings breath a fondness for
rural retirement, and he seems often to have returned
from the satiety of vice, to the calm of virtue and re-

Eose. He died in his ."igth year, and was interred near
is patron Maecenas. Horace is the only one of the Latin
lyric poets who has come down to posterity; a circum-
stance for which the judgment of Quinctilian may con-
sole us, who assures us, that they were scarcely worthy
of perusal. In Horace have been supposed to be uni-
ted, if not individually surpassed, the gaiety of Ana-
creon, the majesty of Alcaeus, and the fire of Pindar.
We must leave it to the lovers of voluptuous literature
to decide, whether the revelling of the Teian bard pos-
sess not a lighter grace of ecstacy than that of the Ro-
man ? The soul of pleasure is in both ; but Horace's
moral reflections (Epicurean as his philosophy was)
are often like a drapery tc his luxuriant images, that
encumbers their joyousness without communicating de-
corum. In the parallel with Pindar, he presents a clear
and rapid brilliancy of thought, more pleasing, if less
astonishing, than the vague and obscure sublime of the
Theban poet, as well as a richer variety in his subjects.
He may be called, perhaps without a rival, the master
of expression ; and such is the harmony and diction of
his odes, that an apt quotation from them always
sparkles like a gem when it illustrates the most eloquent-
ly expressed thought in the p;ige of any language. Of
all poets he is the most frequently quoted. To the me-
rits of style, harmony, and lanc}', must be added his
knowledge of human nature, and of the principles of
human manners, exhibited in that part of his writings
where the tone of fancy and poetical diction is purpose,
ly relaxed ; in his satires, to wit, where we take him to
our bosoms for his good humour, and where his good
sense instructs us in the language of friendship. His
epiitle to tlie Pisos ha?, perhaps, been too much consi-
dered as an attempt on his part to give a preceptive theo-
ry of the whole art of poetry. It is, in fact, only an epis-
tle upon the subject, in which his design is evidently
desultory. Horace knew poetry too well, to think of
submitting so ethereal a subject to the trammels of sys-
tematic theory ; and it is not his fault, if tlie world has
been since annoyed with sickening attempts to teacli
the art of inspiration. The infallibiUty of all his tenets
of taste it is not our business here either to impeach or
support; but, in a general view, it must be confessed,
that his maxinw, though misapplied by pedants to nar-
row the range of dramatic genius, have, with reference
to all that was then known in that species of poetry, a
most respectable weight and felicity, (n)

HO RAT 1 1. See Rome.

HORIZON, Artificial. See Quadrant.

HORN, a musical wind instrument, which, whether
of the short kind, called a bugle horn, or the long coiled
kind, called a French horn, has a scale of intervals
alike defective, and similar to that of the common
Trumpet, which see. Tiie supplying of chromatic
notes to tlie scile of the French horn, so as to render
it an instrument of general use in an orchestra, is said

Horace

Horn.

Speakirg of the btttet traits of his clinractqr..

H O R

IIS

H O R

is mdarcd con^Mte bj
tUm, aad keys lika tboM

to have been tnt attempted in the beginning of the
18th emtaiT. in Gcmunj; and (ince 1740, Messrs
MeMing*, SfMDdau, Porto, Leanden, Petrides, &c.
hare raceecded here in diferent degrees, in supplying
all the lequiate notes to the hom, by means of the hand,
ur • tnmed faloek ot wood thnist into the moath at
the iwnmmeat, so as to alter the length of the somul*
iofrpsft of the tube, in the requisite degrees, during
pcrwnnaacc

The late Mr Chariaa C1^K««, as we has* csplaiiied
in our artide CuwMwnc frtmek Horn, attaniplcd to
aceanpUih the aanc tiring, by means of two aUadied
tubas, SM iMlf ■ toM liwiisr tiMR the other, cither of
whidi tiM HSifaBwr cooid Mow al pleasure ; bat it did
noksaccMd,soast»canliniMiaaask In IHID, MrWiU
Ivm Qsra nvcnled and tiausleiitw to Mr Pceceval,
OOTMsite St Janei^a Maee, tiw patenl far a polyi^honian
Fimcli iiani* wnoae a
manna of nngcr*lioles n its
of a Bote. (()

yi.Mt V C*,fc See FoKCo, voL x. p. 84. eeL «.

Rsaaiira, is the art of nouldingar Cmnini;
1^, ^>u varioMS asticlea in horn or t«iHoia«i shell.
1mm animat ankataseas aiw capaMa of being so soften-
ofasaodenrtabeat, tliat ttiey can
mta flny ivc|niMd shape, ana
twMyhe imprinted with anyrlasign in the
id saost dclioaia reliaC Aaeatiar valaable
fmieity ia, thai piacas may ba mad* to adtiei* Armly
lanalJMrwilhont any camant. In the asticic BtrrraM-
Jtfainw, we have aliaady gisaua JaaLiiutiaii oftha aa-
thodof prssdna hosnbnWaw, by msnneof Isan nmnida
TnaaaMMnacMRa/and swaflarnnwlds,
'timplaaittclca; bat
tm making hollow artl^BSi sncb n» ■wrifUunti, tooih.
pick eases, pawdet^laaks, tabaa of npsin glaasn. ink-
noms, Ac. a serew.press is nsad. Tbapraeaas is estreme-
lystmpla: Tha lwr« or teewisa shell is bbiiad in water
I softened, and is then pot intn monlds of
' »in twoor mora piece*, ami with cavi'
I to cneriyand viih tlw artide srMch
iatolw&fancnicd, and, wiife aH ik intended amamenta,
inlsi<er sorfhee of the moakL This
^ > iMt, tha Dsvn or *nell is pat between

ili taw hilva^ sskI tha monid being put in ■ nnall

>^h(v to imprint

ofthaaanhL if

tMacannolbe

thabam,!
tha(

tha iuleee are fcsved tocher to imf
carily

bf« tMa presa^ wiia tM
I in K, is pot into a capper, and boiled atlil longer :
It ia than tobaa enl, and, by a lever applied to the
HMW, it ia saaiwsl Ugblw, so as al len^ to ubtain
th» bnpntriaa dasiradL Winn a single piece of bom
or lewaisa ibti ia net snacien<>y large to til the mowM,
twn orHHre nieces are put lagetlMr: they are eat to
At toaach other with a ptnper ilegfta of orerlap, and
I by bodinf in water, the tor-
tmmfm^tiy prraaad tagaiher, and they will thus
anjied as Hmdy aa if tlMrr were originaRy in one
tea. Tha s<mr.pKm smpfcyad far tMs buaineaa is
vwy aiaple, being oidy an bwn ftana^ with a screw
thraagbthatapofil; and. ferthecanmdancvof pot.
ting it in and oat of the baOar or copper, a smdl tackle
of CMllays is (isad ja< orer the cooper, and by the nde
ofk iaablaekofslane. witli a hole or cavity in itlage
•Mngbt«rse*ivethapram,andhoMitfifaiiynpri "

re tna pram,
rer or wretMb ia applied to tha
mnd and pradnca thanmnn^vydi briiw d
^pfafatamadfaitotkaMhr. Taabvfatodto
«oi.xi. rsRTt.

totur

nience of thus lif\ing the press in and out of the boiler, Hors-
Messrs Poitxspffell and iSeyerlin of I^ndon ha\e made l^**^*'
the machine repre<wnted in Figs. 1 . and 2. of the Plate. _ _^
Plate CCXCIX. Fig. 1. being a section, and Fig. 2. an MevnPoli-
elevation, A A is a box or case of cast iron; B, a boiler or zapSHl ud
copper to contain the water ; and C, the grate for the fire, Uejerlio'i
which is to be jilaccd beneath it to heat the water; E is "»«'>»"« ^
the flue or chimney, at which the amoke passes off; FFG |'°™-P"»*-
is a press, made very strong, of cast iron, and capable p^..^^
of being drawn up out of the water, or let down into it ccxciX.
at plaaaure, by means of racks a, a at each side, which pjg. i. & t.
are actuated by pinions d, d ; the axes o of these ninions
extend across the machine, and have each a wheel N
at the end ; and these wheels are moved at the sane
time by two arms or endleaa screws, cut upon an axis,
which extends from one to the other, and is turned by
the handle H : the press is guided in this ascent or
descent by grooves in the side of the boiler. When
raised up out of the water, the moulds, with the hom
or tortoise-fhell between them, are nut beneatli the
preieer I, and a severe pressure is produced liy turning
the wheel K. This wheel has an endless screw R upon
its axis, which works the teeth of a large wheei L,
fixed on the top of the screw P. The screw is received
into a female screw formed within the box or presscr
I, which is guided and prevented from turning round
by the cross my e e, through which the presser is fitted;
by thianieatu, when the screw Pis turned round by the
whed L end endless screw, the hom or tortoise-shell is
[MiisiJ between the moulds ; the press is then lowered
Bgai: '!ir water of the boder, in order to be

sull oftAtfcd by the boiling; but when the

the screw can be screwed
<'l K until the desired ira-
'Iff the handle N, the
.■ Iioiler, and by turning
tlic pressure is released, and the
moolda est! be removed.

The Figures X, V and Z represent a pair of moulds
properfbr forminga cylindrical snuff-box : X is the in-
ternal mould for the I -'le bottom of which a

piece of shell, softene i m^t, and cut round, is

Wat placfil ; snd round the in«idc a Ituif; slip is curled,
the ends bring made to Isp over with a pn'per joint.
The external meaM Y ia then put into the cavity of the
horn, and is forcibly pressed by the icrrw so as to give
the ham the shape or Y when it is withdrawn from the
raoold : a similar moold is used for making the lid of
the box. ftaMU bans, and those which ore slightly
raised, can ba made from one single piece without join*
ing; alao toa(h.pick cases and ^iiniUr articles.

The Chinese are famous for making lanterns of hom
^■ery thin and tnmmarent. We are informed, in the
AmmUt Ha Arts, that they employ the same methods
aawedoof dKrctingthe|anuag« by softening thehora
in hot water, but Uat they use a kmg beam or lever,
for maicing the pressure. This method is for making
up the mvee oif hom ft«n small pieces ; but as the
lioiliiig would disfigure these leaves, thry are united
together to form the lanterns, by warming them .it the
fire, and pressing; the edges or them together by hot
pincers, made fl^t on the inside ; by this means the joints
are so }>erfect tlut they can scarodv be perceived.
See a transbtion of this paper in the ifepertorj/ nf Arit,
9il Series, vol. xxix. An account of the manalacture of
r" ' rnis, will be found in the Mfmoirt* dct

:nptrt, torn. ii. p. 350, in a Memoir by id.
D'liicsrviUc. (J. p)

HURNS. Sea Anatomt, Cosi/Mrativr, vol ii. p. S4.

in

pre

pressuui 1* obtaii
nreas is then raisr^ I
back the wheel K,

114

HOROLOGY.*

Iliflory.

Toadied
irhMla ap-
plied to
depsydim.

Vick's
clock,
Plate
CCC.
Fig. 1.

Clocks
made by
Pacificus
■end Oer-
beit.

flichard of
Waling-
iord's clock.

Horology is tTie art of coHstructinp machines for mea-
suring time. The word is derived from the Greek
'n^tXtytti, (through the Latin horologium,) compounded
of «j«, an liour, and >.iyu, to read or point out ; hence
«^>i«yi«y, a machine for indicating the houi's of the day.

Long before sun-dials were invented, clepsydras, or
water clocks, had been made in the most remote
perioiU of antiquity, and were used in Asia, China, In-
dia, Chaldca, Egypt, and Greece, where Plato intro-
duced them. Julius Cicsar found them even in Britain,
when he carried his arms tliither ; and it was by them
lie observed, that the nights in this climate were shorter
than those in Italy : (See his Commentaries, lib. v. xiii.)
Toethed wheels, although known a considerable time
before, were first applied to clepsydrte by Ctesibius, a na-
tive of Alexandria, who lived 140 years before the Chris-
tian era. At what time, or by whom, was invented the
clock with toothed wheels, crown wheel 'scapement, and
the regulator in the form of a cross suspended by a cord
with two weights to shift on it, can now only be guess-
ed at, as no positive information on this subject has
been handed down to us. It was tliis kind of clock, a
large turret one, which Charles V. king of France, sur-
named the Wise, caused to be made at Paris by Henry
Vick, who was sent for from Germany for the express
purpose, and whicli was put up in the tower of his pa-
lace about the year 1370. Julien le Roy, who had seen
this clock, has given some account of it in his edition
of Sully's Regie Arlificielle du Temps, Paris 1737: (See
Plate CCC. Fig. 1. and the Description of the Plates at
the end of the volume.) Before a clock could be brought
even to the state of the one made by Vick, there must
have been many alterations and progressive improve-
ments upon that which had first been projected, so that
it must have been invented at least two or three cen-
turies before Vick's time. As the same word for a sun-
dial among the Greeks and Romans was also that for
a clock, disputes have arisen, whether the horologia
of Pacificus and of Gerbert were sun-dials or clocks.
Father Alexander asserts that the horologium of Ger-
bert was a clock; while Hamberger supposes it to have
been a sun-dial, from the pole star having been employ-
ed in setting it. Pacificus was archdeacon of Verona
about the year 850. Gerbert was pope, under the name
of Silvester II. and made his clock at Magdeburg, about
the year 996.

Richard of Wallngford, abbot of St Albans in Eng-
land, who flourished in 1326, by a miracle of art con-
structed a clock, which had not its equal in aU Europe,
according to the testimony of Gesner- Leland too, an
old English author, informs us, that it was a clock which
shewed the coui-se of the sun, moon, and stars, and the
rise and fall of the tides; that it continued to go in his outi
time, which was about the latter end of Henry the
Seventh's reign ; and that, according to tradition, this
famous piece of mechanism was called Albion by the
inventor.

" In 1 382," says Father Alexander, " the Duke of
Burgundy ordered to be taken away from the city of
Couitray, a clock whicli struck the hours, and which
was one of the best known at that time, either on this
«ide or beyond seas, and made it be brought to Dijon,

his capital, where it still is in the tower of Notre Dame.
These are the three most ancient clocks that I find, after
that of (jcrbert.''

" We know no person," continues this author, "more
ancient, and to whom we can more justly attribute the in-
vention of clocks with toothed wheels, than to Gerbert.
He was born in Auvergne, and was a monk in the ab-
bey of St Gerard d'Orillac, of the order of Saint Bennet.
His abbot sent him into Spain, where he learned astro-
logy and the mathematics, in which he became so great
a master, that, in an age when these sciences were little
known, he passed for a magician, + as well as the Ab-
bot Trithemius. From Spain he came to Rome, where
he received the abbacy of Bobio in Italy, founded by
Saint Columbus ; but the poor state of its funds com-
pelled him to return to France. The reputation of
his learning and uncommon genius, induced Adal-
beron. Archbishop of Rheims, to establish him, in 970,
as rector of the schools there, and at the same time to
make him his private secretary. It was near the end
of the tenth century, about the y-ear i)f)6, when he made
at Magdeburg this clock, so wonderful and surprising,
6y means of weights and wheels. He was Archbishop
of Rheims in 992, a situation which he held during three
years then archbishop of Ravenna in 9^7, and at last
sovereign pontiff, under the name of Silvester II. in
999 ; and he died at the beginning of the fifth year of
his pontificate, in 1003." The clock constructed by
Gerbert seems to have been made after he left Rheims,
and before his appointment to Ravenna; and it is high-
ly probable, that this was the period when clock-making
was introduced into Germany.

" William Marlot," continues the same author, " to
show how wonderful this piece of work was, makes use
of an expression which can hardly be sufferetl in our
language : Acfmirabite horologium /abricavit, per tnsirU'
mentum diabolica arte inventum."

Since toothed wheels had been known above 1300
years before Gerbert is said to have made his horologi-
um, and above 1 1 00 after they had been applied to the
clepsydra, and as they were also sculptured on "Tra-
jan's column at Rome, where they are still to be seen,
there seems to be nothing unaccountable in Gerbert's
having fallen on the way of applying wheels to make
a clock different from the clepsydrae, which had been
long in use. Besides, Father Alexander seems to have
investigated the history of horology more profoundly
and indefatigably than Hamberger ; and Gerbert may
have made use of the pole star, for other purposes than
merely to set a sun-dial by it, and probably for the pur-
pose of drawing a meridian line, in order to regulate
his clock. If it were a sun-dial, as some suppose, why
does Marlot, who .wrote at Rheims in 1679, consider it
as such a wonder, since it appears from our Jlistorij of
Dialling, that dials were well known, and in com-
mon use, 1600 years before Gerbert's time.-' Hamber-
ger, however, admits, that the clock was invented in
the eleventh century ; and he thinks it probable, that
we are indebted to the Saracens for it. Now Ger-
bert's clock was made near the commencement of the
same century. The college in Spain, where he had
been instructed, had Arabians or Saracens among its

History.

Gerbert's.
dock.

• The Editor U indebted to Mr Thom4s IIeid for the following article on Hokolooy.
t It may have been for a crime of tliis kind that he was afterwards banisheil from France.

HOROLOGY.

H5

and «•• at tfwt time the only pUce in Eu.
rope who* any leanunir or fdcnce was to be found.

Tbe arxnmeat afinut Gerbcrf ■ horahwiuin l>eing a
clock, in our acceptation of the word, ia, that he made
lue at the pole tlur, a* if to tet a sun-dial by it ; and
yet we have no positive infarmation that it was a tun-
flial. Bertboad admits, that soch a cloclc as Vick's could
not have been a new invention ; and bethinks, " that the
diflerent partt which cuoipuse the baluioe clock, ha\-e
only been m«k ahtt a knc train at wwrch and of
time, which aoiiiiani the hi^icet antiquity for the auc-
(caaive diswwraneat and that clocks were not known in
France tfll the mddle of tlw 14th eentnry "

The art of hoR>lafnr "■8*1* >>• 8«Df *Iowly an
in GcmMny. thmiirh the bauace dock was unknown
IB Fttttn I psvvieas to which N'ick had been

aoK tor. I : t not taken pbce, it might per.

hapa hava reaiaincd still laa||ar mBkncmu. It most
ba aUo««d. that thcfc ia sanic«bia|| iaciawhliiil in
Father Aknnder's aripiatent, for Riving the dock to
Ccibert, «id raAMing it to Pacificua, " becaosa it was
■at known in Fnuiee till S50 yean after. The disco-
very was of too great utility not to be spread abroad,
particularly in OMaaatMias, where it was so taodi i»-
quired to regakiathaaAee of the night. Inthafaaions
aaoMHtary of Claiy. howaw. tha MCviMaB. hi IIOS,
want oat to Ma tfa* ttva, in avdcr to knew tha thaa whan
to awaken tha aMnka to prayer." In the aariy ttmit of
tha art very fcw dadts conld hav« been BMda, ad
which were cmtiftart enald not ba '

" As aU am ara at fnt iaptHket,"
*• itisabaervadaftfaawdaaba,lhattliay

w tlM t}rd» Ohaiaraiwi Bfmmrtti
voa n^gnlatad tka ciofii la aaderad,
in caaa k ibaiild go wronK. ' nt notat in rrrce, et in
oarsn Mdlanm rai atiam lamr, ut fratres turKrre faciat
ad harHB eomMtcntem.' TbaaanwadaaaMtieaiagi'
in tba CaojMatioacj Hinrngtrnda." Vnm what ia
aaid here, it May ba infcfTCd,
dodu in tha aariiMt periods, canid net plaaa

■dwftbar

Iwitbi
tba and af tha 1Mb I
f th^r cnaala ba m ma asHBg prisala pan
Tba art af claokBakiBf taaaM ta baa* baaa
dhead into liipib bv mm rf tbi
Tbcy wta*. la MMrH, asparially tba
piwimrl ti waabb, tJMa, and Isisata to cnkmaa (
af tba arts aad idaacM M wet* tbea to ba I
jftbaartafhuiulBgji did not arifWila with

rfMlntvWdidavMTllMv b

fcr tba iMakliiai af tba

dqr Md Mgtal> tbMr
to • Mb)ect in which they

ThaMwhawidiftr
docka.are

TrtM

HZ

la

lUliciaaa

AParialTM A

% HiltrjftflmMi^kmt, vol

.__af

D.D London, le^t.

r. par la B. P. Oom. Jaeqaa
' ' da la riMMiH^Tda

Aftria I808L

J dak

ThblaMiaaveririm

1797.

for

r in horology, od waa (be molt of •ercD yean

labour, when the author was at a very advanced period
of life. To these may be added Hisloire de CAslrono-
mie Modtrme, torn. L p. 60, edition de 1785. and Hii-
totrt de PAstromomU Amcieiine. Eclaircusetnctu, Itv. iv.
5 5t. liv. ix. $ 5. Vitruvius's Architecture. PoUius
Vitruvius lived 40 yean before Christ, and was archi-
tect to Au^stus. In a triumph of Pompcy, among
the spoils brought fVoin the East, was a water clock,
the case of which wa« strung round with pearU. Pliny,
lib. xxxrii. cap. i. Memoirt* de C Academic det luscrip'
tkm*, tam. xx. p. 446.

It would be a waste of time to describe the nature
af wheels and pinions, as this kind of machinery is now
so generally known. It may be sufficient to remark,
that a dock or a watch movement is an assemblage of
wheels and pinions, contained in a frame of two bras&
piatea, cannartail by means of pillan; the iint or
SI 111 wbad of which, in an eight day clock movement,
■as ooneentric with it a cylindrical liorrel, having a
spiral groove cat on it. To this cylinder is attached
one eiKl of a cord, which is wrapped round in the
groove, for any determined number of turns, and to
the other end of tbe cord ia hung a weight, which coa~
stitntea a power or force to set the wheels in motion.
Their tima of oanttnaing in motion will depend on the
height throngh which tl^ weight has to descend, on the
awnber of trrth io the first or (neat whed, and on the
af taath or leaves of Vttm pinioa upon which
Ac. The wheeb in spring docks and
ia waMlMi arc argad oa by the force of a spiral
iprini^ coatainadin a hollow cylimlrical Itorrcl or box,
to which ona end of a cord or chain is fixed, and lapping
it roand the barrel for several turns outside ; the other
cad ia 6Md to tha battoa of a solid, shaped like the
ftaauia af » coaa, known b^ the name of the futer,

*^ — ' * ■ ra cut on It : on the bottom oi'this

flnt or great wheel is put. Tha
on which the spring barrel turns, is so fixed in
that it cannot turn when tha fttsaa is wind •
lag an ; tha ianv and of the snring books on to the
favrri arbor, and tba ootar end books to the in«Mlr ol'
tba band. Kow if the fusee is turned round in the
diraction, it will take fm the cord or chain, and
take it off (Irani tha band. This bcnd«

tba ipri^g i and if tha IbaMand great wbcd are left
la fhaasdrM, tha Ibrea anrtid by tha spriiv in tiic
to wnliand ilMllS will make tha barrel turn in a
whicli it WM bent up. This
tha fnam aaboidinc itself, bdng oommuni.
calad to tha wImw^ wB Mt tMa in motion, and they
will Mova wilb wniiiliiihli idedty. Their time of
•■Miaaki* ia aaatioa will dnaad on the number of
tama aT om ^drai giaore on urn fuMa, tba number of
teeth in tba Mt ar gnat wheel, and on thaaumbar of
leaves in tbe piaiaa apon which the graat wheel acts,
fte. Tha wtaaala in any sort of movenient, when at
liberty ar ftaa to turn, and whm imuellcd by a force,
wbetfaar it is that of a waigbt or of a spring, would
aoon allow this Ibree to tarmlaata ; for, as the action of
iha loroa ia constant fVom ita firtt eanflMnoanaent, the
wheels woald ba greatly accalaialad ia thair course,
and it woald baaa iaaprapar maebiaa to regblertima
aritaparts. The wuraMJty of chadting thiaacodaiat.on,
and leaking the wheels move with an uoifonn motion,
gavv rise to the invention of the escoaeawal, or 'tcape.
memi aa it is oonuaonly cdlad. To effect this, an alter-
nate motion wm necaaiary, which required no small
eflbrt of humaa ingenuity to produce

Hiitorjr.

Geocral dc

•criptioa ol°

« dock.

Plate

COB

Kig. 1 &.V.

Gtnetal d*.
KiipiiaB of
s wuch.
Pl*t«
CCCII.
I* I.

116

HOROLOGY.

ments.

CHAP. I.
On the Escapement, or ^ScapemetU.

On cTCipe- The escapement is that part of a clock or watch
moiU. connected with tlie beats which we hear them give ;

and these beats are the effects of the moving power,
carried forward by means of the wheels in the move-
ment to the last one, which is called the swing nhed
in a pendulum clock, and the balance wheel in a watch.
The teeth of this wheel act on the pallets or verge,
which are of various shapes, and which form the most
essential part in a 'ecapement; the drop from each
tooth of the swing or balance wheels, on their respec-
tive pallets, giving one beat or impulse to the pendu-
lum or balance, in order to keep up or maintain their
motion ; and were it not for the pallets which alter-
nately stop the teeth of the swing or balance wheels,
the motive force would hare no check. Hence it is,
that, by this mechanism of the 'scapement, the wheels
in the movement are prevented from havmg their re-
volutions accelerated, which would take place to such
a degree, as to make the machine run down in a mi-
nute or two; whereas, from the resistance opposed by
the pallets, it is kept going for twenty -four or thirty
hours, for a week or a month, or even for twelve
months. In the clocks or watches, however, which as
a matter of curiosity h,ive been made to go so long, it
was not possible to have an accurate measure of time.
Crown No P^r' of ^ clock or watch requires so much skill

■wheel and and judgment in the contrivance of it, and so much care
verge and nicety in its execution, as that of the 'scapement ;

'scapement. j,(,j,g ^f tj,g 'scapemcnts of the present day require
this more than the ancient crown wheel and verge
'scapetnent, which when nicely executed, upon the pro-
per principle, does extremely well for a common pocket
watch. But this is a thing hardly now to be met with.
From the time of Dr Hooke, and during the last cen •
tury, many ingenious contrivances for 'scapements
were suggested ; but the number of them adopted in
practice is very limited. The crown wheel and verge
Plate 'scapement is represented in Fig. 2, where V is the
verge and C the crown wheel, p, /) the pallets, and BB
the balance. It is the oldest that is known, and must
have been the only one used in clocks, for several
centuries, previous to the middle of the seventeenth,
or towards the end of it. Although it has been
so long in use, and so well known to every clock
and watch-maker, that its merits are now overlooked,
and held in little estimation, yet, if it is duly consider-
ed, it will be found to have been a very masterly and
ingenious device. The crown wheel and verge are of
such an odd shape, that they resemble nothing that is
familiar to us. Yet some ancient artist had contrived
it for the purpose (and it certainly was an ingenious
thought) to give an alternate motion to a plain wheel,
or cross, which he had suspended from the upper end
of its axis by a string, or which at first might rest on
the lower end of the axis or fool pivot. This plain
wheel was like the fly of our "common kitchen jack.
In place of this circular rim, or plain wheel on the
axis, there were some of them that had two arms upon
it, forming something like a cross ; on these were made

CCC.
Fig. 2.

a sort of notches, concentric to the axis, in which were Escap*.
hung a small weight on each arm, which, by shifting ""'ents.
more or less from the centre, the clock was made to go ~' " ~'
slow or fast. From the weightiness of this kind of
balance, and the rude execution of the work, the fric-
tion on the end of the foot pivot would be so great that
it is probable there was some difficulty to make the
clock keep going for any length of time. Recourse
was then had to suspend the balance by a small cord, ,

80 that the end of the lower pivot should not rest on
the foot of the potence. This ingenious idea has in
modern times been adopted both by Berthoud and Le
Roy, who have had the balances in some of their ma-
rine time-keepers suspended by a very small wire, or
a very delicate piece of watch pendulum spring wire.
The mechanism of the movement of these old clocks
is exactly the same as has been frequently made for an
alarm. To construct this, and apply it to a clock, there
was hardly a step to go ; and therefore in all probabi-
lity the invention of the alarm part took place before
that of the striking part, though some have thought
otherwise. The contrivance of the striking part was a pj^^^^j.
more comjJex process, and less hkely to take place.* ccc.
The alarm-clock is represented in Fig. 3. Fig. 3.

Tiiis opinion is strongly corroborated by the observa-
tions of Hamberger in Beckmann's History of Inventions.
" These horologia," he remarks, " not only pointed out
the hours by an index, but emitted also a sound. This
we learn from Primaria Instiiuta Canonicorum Pros-
momtntentium, where it is ordered that the sacristan
should regulate the horologium, and make it sound be-
fore matins to awaken him. I dare not, however, ven-
tui-e thence to infer, that these machines announced the
number of the hour by their sound, as they seem only
to have given an alarm at the time of getting up from
bed. I have indeed never yet found a passage where
it is mentioned that the number of the hour was ex-
pressed by them ; and when we read of their emitting
a sound, we are to understand, that it was for the pur-
pose of awakening the sacristan to prayers. The ex-
pression horologiiwi cecidil, which occurs frequently in
the before-quoted writers, I consider as allusive to this
sounding of the machine. Du Fresne, in my opinion,
under the word Horologium, conceives wrong the ex-
pression de pmtderibns in imum delapsis, because the
machine was then at rest, and could raise neither the
sacristan or any one else, whose business it was to beat
the scilla."

When an alarm is set off, the weight, which is the
moving force of it, very soon falls to the bottom, and
then the alarm ceases.

In attempting to make the first 'scapement, there
can be little doubt that something of the circular or cy-
lindrical kind was contrived, and the only thing which
could give it an alternate motion, was either a spiral
spring or a j)endulum ; but these things being then un-
known, the clockmaker was obliged to seek after other
methods, and at last produced the crown wheel and
verge scapement. How came it that means so compli-
cated were fallen on, when those which were more
simple and better were overlooked ?

It is a very singular circumstance, that a small Discover)' of
ball or weight, when suspended by a slender thread, tt>e pcndu-
and drawn a little aside from the perpendicular, on q^J,_

* In many parts of India, where public clocks are unknown at this- day, they strike the hours upon a plate of silver, or silver al-
loyed with another metal, of a lenticular form, about 18 inches in diameter. It is hung on a frame by a doubled string ; and when
the hour is pointed ont, either by their sand-glasses, clepsydrae, or water-dropping instruments, which they sometimes u*e, they strike
■with a wooden hammer on the middle of the circular plate, and thus indicate, by the number of blows, the hour of the day. The
sound which is produced is strong, clear, and pleasant. This contrivance is used in many of the towns and camps throughout India.

HOROLOGY.

117

Ih* ptiulu-
kuu.

•4k«v*- being let g», eoMtnMM f- vtlmte for a canaidcra-
■••»• bl« time, ana with '" ">« regularity. Bleny

■'^' ' '- thing* in dwaratir 1. imng op «r anapcoded

TUtorujoi by stringa, and were evitv tlav aaen or obaerred;
yet wbat « long time cbpacti b«n« any thing of this
kind was ever tboogbt of, or applied to regulate
the motion of a clock! It is taiu tliat Galileo took
bia ides of a pcndnlom from the nM>tioa of a lamp,
aoanmdcd from the roof or oeibng of a dMrcb, which
bad been accidentally act • Tibnting. He uaed the
•imple pendnlnm in his astroaofnical obscrrationa,
loajr bemc it was applied to a dock. Some of the
emcr aatiwMmew. aa well as Galileo, «*ed a omb-
noB etriflg Mid ball, wbieb tbey aaade to vtbrMe a
little wb&, dnfing the tine of an obeerration of
any of the heatvcMy bodiea. Yet eren theae aatre-
nenendidnottbHikof ilaifiplicatiiinlockidu. Some
waich JBiahiri, wImb their waldi i* ialahed, for waat
of • peadaloaa dock, legnlalc it by means of a ball
and ttamg, which will answer verr well, by taking 50
vibratiotia of a pendtilum's leogta for aecouds, in the
aame time that the wheel oagbt t* make one mwliitiMi.
As gmritatioa ii the priBci|>le on which the pendu-
lum ia fwded, it oaanoc propaily be cunddeffed w
aa inrentien, as aame hairo ailed it, whatercr name
may be given to it when efipiicd to mtnlate the mo-
taaaofadock. Tbo pendnhmi baviiiit before thia been
long kaawa in ita aioqJo alate. and need aa • aart
of time mManrwr, it waa no woMfer diet tfa» idea of
applying it to a dacfc. waa cnleMained by aevaral per-
sona neatly aben& Ine aanie pertan* * Tne movement of
the old balanee clacks was nlni^itet far the anplicatian
of tbepeadnhnn, aoaslogiveniotiantoit : the wheels
in it were all flat onee cxoapt the crawn wheel, and no
other 'irapienrnl at thia time we known b«t that ef the
crown wnael and ^rmgt ; so that, without ennaJgabla
dificnl^ and infitiwi, the nandidnw eonld not well

Tim pnrkal wneh kdl baan mad* a
before this, and the constmctien of itt nwirinianl, which
had a CDMnM wheal in it. woidd natmaUy had them
to that ef one whidiwoaUadant itself to theamtion
of a pendulum, aa by nmaaa of we enntiite wheel the
n wheel coald he nmde ta stand in a vertical
inlheoM halancacfecks. the peas.

of llw paadaloaa, and the in-

withfrnteaceaM by Hay-

The son' of Galilea apfSed the pendalmn to

< *r*^^ a dock at Venice fa the year t6*g ; but to what scat

i X^^ " «^» mrwHasat wa a— > pwland to say. tho^ we

' <i!^^ Mipact, ftom that wabt of snacam wkidi seema to

iro. hav« alleiidtd Us anala, that he had not

the HWiUali wheel moaenHnt ehaedy

the most ptopcr fin- it. We know that Uaygans

aatheen^^
of the

his astronomical obserrstioiis, and wrote a tract ex-
plaining the principles of it. This tract was translated
from the Italian into B'rench at Paris, printed in 1639
in a duodceiaio volume, and sold by Pierre Ricolet.
He intended to apply it to a clock, but this he never
pot into execution. Father Alexander says, " that they
Bad nothing better than the balance docks in Fraaoe
until the year XGGO,"

I'he application of the pendalam to a dock, and of
the spiral form of a pendulum spring to the balance of
a watch, were the greatest iinprovenienU tliat could
peaaibly have been made in the machinery of tin)»>
maasanng.and they both happened to take place near-
ly about the same period.

NoCwithstandia^ the application ef the pendulum,
and the ingenious cootrivance of cycloidal checks by
Haygcna, u order to nuke the long ami short vibra-
tiom be aaifciineJ in nearly n equsi time as possible,
yet the deck «lid not keep tone with that correctness
which was expected : Thia arose from the great extent
of the arc of vibealieBi tha Mahtneaa of the pendulum
bail, the great rfaaiaiiaii wliic£ the dodc had over the
pendalam, and the bed eAcU produced by the cydoi-
dal cheeks, which, however excellent in tneory, were
never found useAil in practice. See Fig. 4. where
a front view of the cvcloidal cheeks is represent-
ed in Fig. A. This led artists and amateurs of the
prefmsiuii lo t&ink of farther means of improvement ;
aoooadinglT. about the year 1680, a dock was made
by W. Ckanant, a deck-maker in London, havioig
in plaae ef the crawn-wheel and verge 'acanement,
a 'ecapaacnt which waa nearly the aame as toe com-
nnn raeailieg 'arapemcat of the preaent day. The
swiny-whecl S \V was flat, having a sort of ratchet or
aaw-like teeth; and the pallets P, V hi* - - — - • -r-^nn.
blancc to the head of an anchor, by Hi 1st

that time tha name of the mmcKor '»t»pri>u-Hi. on- i- ig. 5.
Tba ballof tha paodnlam waa HMdaamch heavier than
what had fenaeily bean adapted, the arc of vibration
muckahotter, and the BMlivaAace much less. From the
excellent lia^keepiag of ike dock, thia was found to be
a great iapBavam«Bt, and hence this '•capoment was af-
lerwarda gcneially practised. It passed into Holland
and Gennany, and waa baldly known in France until
the year 1693. Sea Hhtmn de ia Mtturf du Tempt,
lemuL ptioa

At tha tiaaarkMilhia clack of Clement's appeared.
Dr Hoaka rtaiiad tha kivcniien of it as his, and af-

ltu]rgtas'«

cluck.
Pl.ATB
CCC.
Kig.4.

Pig. A.

AadMr

PtATX

CCC.
fig. 4.

that tHar the great fire of London, in 1666,
he had ahewn latha B^wl Society a dock with thi*

'ecaneaamt. " Cenaidving, " sayt .Suiiy, m hi«
/tiUmne in fikujiftmmt, " the geniu*, and the j^reat
' ina dHMTCna* of this esodleut n

sost Bfupcr Mr it.
as* of thia aort ef
Ik to be rMnhlad by tha
wfaieh he iMd alaa anpbed. Of late, ■
data A* tke iMllialiiin ef tha nendahim to a dnck
haa been kMaght ftrwad by sodi (aspactablc aathon
t^, that laavea little er nv taem to daabt of ita

twtty. MrGrifnien
in MH2. bv Itirhard Harris of London, fartkecbaarh
"f .^t 1 'sill's, Cof eat Oanlen, and that tha deck had a
pwdalam to it."
HiffiBW|,«Wmninqawliunabliaei«i»ee,thatGdileot
«a the Grand Duke of Tnaeaay, ir*t
■ af ttha pandolam, ased it in

tsee

ha waa the first inventor of it."

; with thia 'saspanwaf had received the

Tha di*l leaf 'irapaaiwit of Graham's nestauooecd-
ed, which wee invrnteil seme thnaafter the btjgiaBipa of
the laghttialh century, and has oentinuad to be Uut
which is aeneially uanl in ragnlntr.n. nr axtmnomical
clcd(%widia«MvfrwtaMpaicn» '>outt«n

er liftst n y ear a am i a ai J^iteawc i.. ... — 1 France,

and waa adopted there alao aa the best ibr dorks in-
tended to aieasafa time ver|r aorurately. Lcpaute, a
very ingenious watchmaker m Paris, produced, about
tha year 17fi3, or Mmatime before it, a 'acapement
fitandad on that ef Gaahaa'a dead4Kat one. i>ee Fig. 7.
la LepauU'iv (he reel of the teeth on like paUeU was aU

Oialiam'i
dnd-bwt

PiS-O.

l.cpSDU*l

nopcoTS-
aMMapaa
it
Pif T.

118

HOROLOGY.

Kseapt-
mcnt.

Plate
CCC.

»ig. 7.

ways with the same effect, because it was on the same
circle, whicheveroftlie pallets it rested upon; the impulse
Lcpaute'T g'^o *'** "'^o always the same on whichever pallet it
ncapemcnt. ^^ given, the flanches of the pallets being planes equal-
~ ly inclined. This was no doubt some improvement on

Graham's; but the teeth of the swing wheel in Lepaute's
consisted of sixty small pins, thirty being arranged on
each side of the rim of the wheel ; and where pin-teeth
are used, oil, which is in some degree necessary, can-
not easily be kept to them, the attraction of the rim of
the wheel constantly draining the oil from these pin sort
of teeth ; an evil which is perhaps not easily to be got
the better of, unless by using stone pallets and hard
tempered steel pins.
Retniliog Notwithstanding the seeming superiority and great

'scapement character which the dead beat 'scapement had long ac-

Fig. «.

Comparison
of the dead
beat and
recoiling
'scapements.

quired over that of therec«i7(«o- one represented in Fig. 8.
this last had, however, its partizans ; and among them
were artists and amateurs possessed of first rate talents.
Such were Harrison, Professor Ludlam of Cambridge,
Berthoud, Smeaton, andothers Harrison, indeed, always
rejected the dead beat 'scapement with a sort of indigna-
tion. The author of the Elements of Clock and Watch
Making, has said a great deal in favour of the dead beat,
and as much against that of the recoiling one, without
having shown in what the difference consisted, or what
was the cause of the good properties in the one, or
what the defects in the other. It appears doubtful
if these causes were known to him ; yet he was very
deservedly allowed to be a man of considerable genius.
When pallets are intended to give a small recoil, their
form, if properly made, differs very little from those
made for the dead beat, as may be seen by the dotted
lines upon the dead beat pallets in Fig. 6.

We shall endeavour to point out the properties and
defects naturally inherent in each : When the teeth of
the swing wheel, in the recoiling 'scapement, drop or
fall on either of the pallets, the pallets, from their form,
make all the wheels have a retrogi'ade motion, opposing
at the same time the pendulum in its ascent, and the
descent, from the same cause, being equally promoted.
This recoil, or retrograde motion of the wheels, which
is imposed on them by the reaction of the pendulum,
is sometimes nearly a third, sometimes nearly a half
or more of the step previously advanced by the
movement. This is periiaps the greatest, or the on-
ly defect that can properly be imputed to the re-
coiling 'scapement, and is the cause of the greater
wearing in the holes, pivots, and pinions, than that
which takes place in a clock or watch having the
dead beat, or cylindrical 'scaptement; but this defect
may be partly removed by making the recoil small, or
a little more than merely a dead beat. After a recoil-
ing clock has been brought to time, any additional
motive force that is put to it, will not greatly increase
the arc of vibration, yet the clock will be found to go
considerably faster ; and it is known that where the arc
of vibration is increased, the clock ought to go slower,
as would be the case, in some small degree, with the
simple pendulum. The form of the recoiling pallets
tends to accelerate and multiply the number of vibra-
tions, according to the increase of motive force impres-
sed upon them, and hence the clock will gain on the time
to which it was before regulated. Professor Ludlam, who
had four clocks in his house, three of them with the dead
beat, and the other with a recoil, said, " that none of
them kept time, fair or foul, like the last : This kind
of 'scapement gauges the pendulum ; the dead beat leaves
it at liberty." Were it necessary, many good proofs

could be adduced of the excellent performance of clocks Escape-
wliich had the recoiling 'scapement. ment.

Let us now make a similar comparative trial with the p f~~^
dead beat 'sc.npement. An additional motive force be- of the'cTe^
ing put to it, we find that the arc of vibration is consid- bcit and
erably increased, and the clock, in consequence of this, recoiling-
goes very slow. There are two causes which produce '"^^1"-
this ; the one is, the greater pressure by the sv;ing ""^'"*'
wheel teeth on the circular part of the pallets during
the time of rest ; the other is, the increase of the arc of
vibration. It was observed in the case of recoil, that
an additional motive force made the clock go fast; and
the same cause is found to make the clock having the
dead beat go slow. As the causes are the same, and yet
produce effects diametrically opposite, does not this
evidently point out what is necessary to be done.^
The pallets should be so formed, as to have very little
of a recoil, and as little of the dead beat ; and here any
variation in the motive force, or in the arc of vibration,
will produce no sensible deviation from its settled rate
of time-keeping. We have been informed, that a clock
was given by Mr Thomas Grignion to the Society
for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, &:c.
" which had a dead beat 'scapement, so constructed
or drawn off, that any diminution or addition of motive
force, would not alter the time-keeping of the clock."
All the 'scapements of this kind which have been hith-
erto made, were commonly drawn off nearly in the
same way as Mr Grignion's, that is, the distance be-
tween the centre of the pallets, and the centre of the
swing wheel, is equal to one diameter of the wheel,
and the line joining the centre of the pallets, and the
acting pai-t of them, is a tangent to the wheel, taking in
ten teeth, and 'scaping on the eleventh. This is nearly the
same as that represented in Plate 1 1, of Mr Cuming's book.
The only difference is, that Mr Grignion's circle of rest
is the same on each pallet. But whether it possesses the
properties which have been ascribed to it, shall be left
to the determination of those who may chuse to try
this experiment with it.

Clock makers in general have an idea, that, in a
'scapement, the pallets ought to take in seven, nine, or
eleven teeth, thinking that an even number would not
answer. This opinion seems to have arisen from the old
crown wheel having always an odd number of teeth,
because an even number could not have been so fit for it.
There seem to be no rules (as some have imagined)
necessarily prescribed by either the recoiling or the
dead beat 'scapement, for any particular distance, which
the centre of the pallets ought to have from that of the
swing wheel. The nearer that the centres of the swing
wheel and pallets are, the less will be the number
of teeth taken in by the pallets, when a tangent for
them is drawn to the wheel. It is very obvious, that
when the arms of the pallets are long, the greater will
be the influence of the motive force on the vibrations
of the pendulum, and vice versa, when the pallets
are short, the angle of the 'scapement will naturally be
greater than may be required, but this can be easily
lessened by making the flanches so as to give any angle
required. When this angle is not quite half a degree
on each side, a very small motive force will keep a
pretty heavy pendulum in motion. We have known a
very good clock maker, who thought that the flanch of
the pallets was an arbitrary or fixed point, which could
be made only in one way, and it was some little while
before he could be convinced of the contrary. The
flanches may be made so long as to act something like
detents, so as to stop the wheel altogether by the teethj

r

HOROLOGY.

119

tff- (<ee Tig. 5.) or they may be made so ihort, a» to allow
■"' ihe wheel teeth to pua them altofretber. without giving
''— • — any impolae at all to them. It i» true, that there would
be no 'acapcment here : only it shows that the flanch of
the pallet* may be made to give any angle of 'scape-
ment, fram a few minutes to two or three degrees.
Whatever the angle of the flanches may be taken at, all
that is requiute, is, to make the wheel 'scape so, that
the tooth, when it drooa on the pallet, shall fall just
bmrotid the center of the flanch, on the circular or re-
coilint; part of the paUet.
■sTuca'* HarnsoB'i clock pallcU (which are sometimes made
rfack p[>3«ti to act b*- mean* of very dehcate springs, and sometimes
•ishuut otl yj ^^^ p,!^ gravity), have a very oonaiderable recoil,
which waa a most ingenious contrivance, to do away
the ocoessity of having oil put to them The construc-
tion of tlMn aeeBiato be but little known; and the^
have ve*y nreiy been adopted in practice. Indeed, it
is a 'scaperoent of such a nature, that venr few would
be competent to execute it properly. The cirrum-
alawet which lr<l to the iaveiitioti of them, were men-
tioned by .Mr Harriaon Imnaelf to the late ProfcMor
Bobbon. Having been aent for to look at a turret
dock which had atopt. h« went to it, though it was at
a fltnsideraUe diatance from hia Itaine, andfbund that
the pallets were veiy nuicfa fa want of oil, which be
then applied to them. On hia rrCondng, and nimi-
nating by the way •« the indifferent sort of traatmcnt
whicf he tbaogbt be had owt vrith, aiUr hmriag cohm
so ftr, he set himacir to work, l« eanUiv* muh •
'scapeiumt. aa should not gi*« In otiMn thnt trouble to
whicfa he had been put in rownnenw of thia tnrrrt
deck- Hence the origin oThia pallets. A drawing and
tkacfiption of them will be given in a future port cf
this artidc.
NaJxo > The jnstly edcbratad Mr Mudge, in a sooll tract,

^oT'^o'- pnbKslMd in Jane IT^. relative to the be* meana of
uapevving marine tiiosi kssipsrs, ii^yoMcd. aa a grant
advantage, tiiat of making tiie manag P"*? ''*'**' "P
at every vibration of the oolonoe^ o tinall ifriBg whoae
rr turning forco shonld be exartcd in aonlaiBitv the

° ^ion of the bal.t"'- '-^ Fig. 9) The ffavt caaay of

■soet ingcnio ^ «nce was a wnall picket

'- ited Uy ■iii>i>rii, ncoriy aboat this period ;

e Sims |itinci|ilo wkidl, some yoars afW-
^^'.i ..r Jtloplod and pnctiaod fa tbooo time-kooprta
wIihIi ticaado.
»-»tu«ti» Aluut twoor tlveo yaaraor so after thopobiioBtion
'■'r**^*- ef this tract, Mr Coming contrived a dodi Vaprwent,
nearly oo the aanso prindpio aa that of Mmtge'a, where
tbonwtion of tbe inndalam waoMaintahod by the ferce
of gravity of taro soon balla, viMh adad npoa it darwg
dwtimoaftbadoaecnt in thio'wpiwiiit, iharatia of
mtAm of tho potleta ia iadipondoK of tlwt oflho po».
nnMni and forgr, althongii toe aano^ and ooncantnc
witii them ( two detents were applied for locking the
swing wbed tcctli, ooc for oadi pallet ; fVooi ton of
tho pallet arbor* a wire projected in an iioriaantal noa»>
tion, and on tho end of thcae wires the baUs were tucd,
which were altonMtal|jr raiaed up at every vibration of
the pendulum, fav aoana of the action of tho swing
wheel toeth en we pallota. In a periodiod phtloto-
phical jonrnal, it ia inssnaatcd that Madge lied bor-
fowod the ids* of tho 'scapoaanl, which he used in
has timekeepers, from this of Coaii^s. That Mndge'a
'acapement vaa hia own invention, m dearly evitfent
from tiw hialorical facU wbidi have been stated. And
althongh liiere is an apparent similarity between
Cnnagfo aid it, yet we are not inclined to be of

opinion, that Mr Cuming borrowed his from Mudge's.
The '«ca|)tnient of the clock made by Cuming for his
Majesty the king in the year 1763, is of the free or
detached kind, a name which was not then known.
The improvement which he himself made upon it
two or three years aAer, was to keep up the motion
of the pendulum by the gravity of two small ball:),
independent of the motive force through tl»e wheels
of the movement. In this 'scapemrnt, he insista on
the adjustment between the pendulum screws and
crutch being made so as just to uulock the swing « heel
and no more. This can then be only unlocked at tlie
time, when the force of the pendulum in its ascent is
nearly gone, and that the pendulum should not then
meet with the arm of tlie iMdl, but to receive it, as it
were, just before the descent of the |)endulum has
conmienced. In that part of Mr M ud>;e'.4, each pallet and
detent were formeil in one, and the unlocking takea
place a conaiderable while before the end of the vibra-
tion. Thus, the springs which maintain the motion of
the balance are bent up, not only by means of the ac«
tion of the swing or balance wheel teeth on the pallets
at every vibraaiun till the wheel teeth arc locked, but
arc still a little more l>ent up when unloi-kiiit; by the
esortion or momentum of the balance, or pentltiluin it-
self, previous to the vibration* being nearly finislied ;
and this is one vf tlie greatest properties of this 'scape-
roent, whether it i« applied to the balance and spring,
or to the pendulum. No 'acapement appears to be better
caloilatea than this is, to keep the petululuin or balance
conatantljr up to tho aoate arc of vibration, notwithstand-
iam ita having what aome have been pleaeid to call a
Jtfeei in the reooiKng one, that of oppoaing the balanoo
or pendulum in ita aacent, and promoting ita descent.
In the Hiring pallet 'aoapeinent, as in the recoiling one,
the penaidum u opposed in its ascent, and ha* it* descent
c«)uany promatctl ; but there ia still a difTerenre be-
tween them, notwithstanding this similarity. In the
spring liallet 'acapement, no retrograde motion is given
to the wheel*, pinions, and pivota, which produce* that
early wearing on them, and where the seconds' hand
partake* alao of thia retrograde motion aa in the com-
men roeoiling 'scapemenL Tbeee are circumstances
which have no place in that of the other. In such
'scapementa as those now mentioned of Mudge's or
Coming's, it has been said by aome, that it matter* not
what sort of work the clock movement i«, or however
ill it may be csrruted ; since tlie motion of the pendu-
lum is kept up by a force, which, in some degree, is in«
dependent of the motive force pruduced through the
wMob in tho MBfiMiwit. Thia may be ao &r true, yet
that* i* no 'siapiwiiit, where any irregularity in the
pitdting*, piniona, ftc of the movement will be more
radi^ diaoovercd than ill ' i ing the going of the

eiodt, whidi will be ver\ . Me to the ear at the

time of raising op the bails, or Uiat c^ bending up the
spring*. We would therefore by no means advise, that
toil sort of **capenient should be put to a movement of
indiftrinr cxocntioti : on the contrary, it seems to re.
quire one flniahed in the l^est possible manner. The
motive force put to it requires to be greater than that
which is usiully put to clocks having the dead boat
'scapement. It may be aaked, whoUicr weight* or
spriM* are the best for these sorts of 'scapementa,
which i* perhape a question not easy to be resolved.
We confer that spring* appear to be preferable ; they
seem to have, aa it were, an alertness or quickness of
action, when compared to the apparent heavy dull
motieo of gravity in the balls. 'The pivoU which are

3

120

HOROLOGY.

Esc»p«-
incnt*.

Description
of a clock
'scapement
by Mr Tho-
mas Reid.
Plate
CCCl.
Fig. 1.

Fig,?.

at the centre of motion of the pallets and balls would
be regarde<l by many as objectionable, from the l>elief
that oil is necessary to theni. Oil does not seem to us
in the least degree requisite, considering the very small
angle of motion which they would have; and we have
always thought, for the same reason, that oil was not
necessary to tiie pivots of such detents as were some-
times used in the detached 'scapement.

We shall now proceed to give a description of a
clock "scapement, on tlie same principle as that of
Mudge's in his marine time-keepers, which was put
to a' very capital regxdafor or astronomical clock,
made some years ago by Mr Thomas Reid, for Lord
Gray's observatory at Kinfauns Castle. It had a
mercurial compensation pendulum, and its time of
going without winding up was forty-five days. Tiie
great wheel, the second wheel, and the swing wheel
pivots, were run on rollers, three being put to each
pivot. Rollers were first applied by Sully to the ba-
lance pivot of his marine time-keeper, and have since
been adopted by Berthoud, Mudge, and others. They
have sometimes been used for clock pivots, but in
such an injudicious manner, that, in place of relieving
the friction of the pivots, they have at last jambed
them to such a degree, that the pivot could not at all
turn or revolve upon them.

■ In Fig. 1. SW is the 'scapement or swinjf- wheel,
whose teeth are cut not unlike those of tlie wheel for
a dead beat, but not near so deep. P, P are the pal-
lets, the upper ends of whose arms at s, s are made
very thin, so as to foi-m a sort of spi'ings, which must
be made very delicate ; for, if they are any way stiff,
the force of the swing wheel will not be able to
bend them when raising up the pallets. In order
that these springs may have a sufficiency of strength,
and at the same time be as delicate as possible, they
are cut open at the bending parts, as may be seen at
Fig. 2. These springs come from a kneed sort of sole,
formed from the same piece of steel, by which sole
they are screwed on to cocks, which are attached to
the back or pillar plate of the clock-frame. The pallet
arms must be made very light and stiff, in order that
their weight may have the least possible load or bur-
den on the springs ; a, a are the arms of the pal-
lets, as represented in the front view. Fig. 1. and are
ftdly as broad as is necessary. Their thickness may be
made much less than this. An edge view of the pallet
arms is seen in Fig. 2. The acting parts of the pallets
at P, P, Fig. 1 . should be made of such thickness as to al-
low room for inserting a piece of ruby, agate, or any fine
or hard sort of stone, the thickness of the stone be-
ing a very little more than that of the 'scapement
or swing wheel. Each of these stone pallets has a
sort of nib or detent for the wheel teeth, which is
left at the end of the pallet flanches, as may easily
be seen at the left hand pallet, Fig. 1. These nibs
are made for the locking of the swing wheel teeth,
and their use will be more particularly explained af-
terwards. On the back of the pallets are screwed to
each a kneed light brass piece c, c, as seen at Fig. 1 ,
On the lower ends of these kneed pieces, the screws
d, d are put through, serving the double purpose of
adjusting the 'scapement, and setting the pendulum on
beat. 'The upper part of the pendulum-rod is com-
posed of a sort of frame, whose steel plates A, A, A, A,
Fig. 1. are represented as being contained within the
dotted circular lines; the thickness of these ring-sort
of plates is seen at A, A, A, A, Fig. 2. This frame has
three pillars to keep the plates properly together ; and

though they are not represented in the drawing, yet
any one may readily conceive where their places ought
to be, and what should be their length and height. At
e, e, Fig. 1. is seen on each side the ends of a thin steel
plate, or traverse bar, which goes from plate to plate,
and is fixcil in the frame. An oblique view of one of
them is seen at e, e, Fig. 2. In the steel frame plates,
there is a circular opening, as represented by the dot-
ted inner circle, Fig. 1. This opening must be of such
a diameter as to allow the swing wheel and the cock
which supports it to come freely through ; a part of
the cock is seen at /, /, Fig. 2. the sole of which F is
screwed to the back of the pillar plate of the clock ;
the other knee K turns up to receive the pivot of the
arbor of tlic swing wheel, the pivot at tiie other end of
this arbor being supposed to run in tlie fore plate, or
in a cock attached to it, and is the pivot which carries
the seconds' hand. This descrijitiou of the manner by
which the swing wheel is supported within the pendu-
lum, it is to be hoped will be sufficiently understood,
notwithstanding the want of a proper drawing of that
part. The swnig wheel S W, and part of its pinion arbor
g, are seen edgewise at Fig. 2. ; also the arm a of one
of the pallets P, and its screw d bearing on the steel
bar c, e. At the point of contact between the end of
the screw d and the bar e, a small piece of fine stone
may be inserted into each bar. This will prevent any
wearing or magnetic attraction which might otherwise
take place, if the screw was left solely to act on the
steel bar ; for the smallest wearing here would in some
degree alter the effects of the 'scapement. In Fig. 1. H
represents a part of the bar of the pendulum ro<l,
which is fi.Ked into the lower part of the steel frame;
an edge view of this bar is seen at B, Fig. 2. At the
upper part of the steel frame is inserted a piece c, c.
Fig. 1 . and il. ; in this piece the pendulum spring is
fixed, whose top piece goes into a strong brass cock,
which is firmly attached to the back of the clock-case,
or to a large stone pier ; the end of the projecting part
of this cock is seen at DD, Fig. 1, and a side view
of this part of it at DD, Fig. 2. The top piece of
the pendulum spring has a long and strong steel pin
through it, which lies in a notch made across on the
upper side and projecting part of the pendulum cock.
By this strong pin, the pendulum is suspended. In
the side of the pendulum-spring top-piece, is made
a large hole, so as to admit freely a strong screw,
the head of which is seen at E, Fig. 2. This
screw serves to pinch the top-piece and cock firmly
together, after the pendulum has been made to take
a true vertical position. This strong pin and screw
are not represented in the drawing, but the descrip-
tion which has been given will, it is presumed, easily
supply this want. In the pendulum spring A, h, Figs.
1 . and 2. may be seen an opening in it, so as to have
tlie appearance of a double spring, as seen at/i, /;, Fig. 2.
This opening is made to allow the spring parts of the
pallets s, s to be brought very near together, and this at
the bending part of the pendulum spring, so that it
and the bending part of the pallet springs should be
as it were in one common centre. A part only of the
cocks on which the spring pallets are screwetl, is repre-
sented by k, k, Fig. 1. ; m, m are the heads of the
screws by which they are fi.xed to these cocks. It
must be observed here, that the spring pallets are so
placed, that they should act on the line of suspension
and gravitation of the pendulum, which necessarily
brings the swing wheel to the place where it is ; no
verge, crutch, or fork are required ; the influence of

Kacape-

menu.

HOROLOGY.

121

■mn.

mrct
bj Vt Tho-
Pod.

tiM oil on the yergt pivoU, and the friction by the
cnitcfa or fork on the peodulura rod, are done away by
thu airangrment. The mutinn of the pendulum U kept
up n/rrWy by the force of the ^ring part of the pal-
leU, indepcndcot of any impediment in the wheel
work, ao leng as it has force soifieient to raise up the
paUcU readily and eaaily : tbia fijrce nay be considered
aa permanent and invariable, and lo abould be the arc
deacribed by the pendulum. If the length ef the pen-
dulum and of the arc it describes are invariable, so
should be the time which is kept by the clock. Having
described the parta which oompoae tbia 'scapement, it
will now be rraaisite to shew their mode of action,
which is extremely simple.

When the pendulum is set in rootioo, it will, by
means of either one or other of the screws d, unlock
the awio^ wheel ; which, in the drawing, b represent-
ed aa bcmg locked by one of its teeth oo toe nib ur
detest part of the right hand pallet ; and the moment
when the wheel is unlocked, the tooth at the left hand
pallet is ready to preaa fcarward and raise up the pal.
let ; and, of course, it bends up the spring. I.et the
pendnlum be now brought to tne right hand side, the
steel bar e will meet with the screw J, and carrying it
or pusti*!)^' it en, it will by this means nnV'^' <'■•■
, and allow it to escape. At tlii>

tl> mtttioff with the pallet on i

: force rta war on the flandi, and raiie
.- stopped by ii'- ■l.»rnt or paHet nib.
ed is locked III 'rt»m of the per-

at aide, when .: - ... 'on amua nslockcd.
ime of the unlocking at Um rigbC hand
(MiUt, ui; the mupm takca place at the left haad. the
penduluai, dnring ita acariioa to the right, ia oMoaed
D^ the spring part of the pallets, and on iu return It is aa-
atttcd by the sane part, ontil the pendulum eoows in c«fi>
tact with the point af the screw tf en the left Imbh) part:
Here it is agim oppcaed in ita excursioo, aa tor aa
'^e are it dcscrflMa; and on ita dcarrnt or rstnm, it
- assisted or iapened by that et the spring part of
the pallet, in conjunction with the totf of gravity. In
Una cktck, all th^ the motive force throogb the wheels
haa to do^ ia to raiaa un the pellets, by bending up the
tftiagt, and these, along with gravity, maintain the
motion of the pendnlum.

When docka of ihecoaunaaconalractioagetibaJin
the oil. or dirty, the arc of vOmtkn faUa of, or ia Ims
than what it was when the dock waa dMB and ftw.

.janencnt. however, when the dock

thefefcn

Eaca^

moru.

s«

tt.

ha I

it

H.

In this 'scancnent, however, when the dodi gata Ibnl,
the fiifcn of the swing wheel teeth, on the dHant pot
of ihepallcta, will be kaacnad, consaqnaptly the wM

clock 'scapement, which the writer of this article con

trivtd about twelve or fifteen years ago. >»-^..^

In Plate CCCl. Fig. 3. SW is the swing wheel, Am.iUt
whose diameter may be so lar;;e, as to be sufficiently clock
free of the arbor of the wheel that runs into its pinion, 'icapaueBt
which in eight day clocks is the third. The teeth of by Mr ad*
this swing wheel are cut thus deep, in order that the ^',■tl\■^.
wheel may be as !i;;ht as po«sible, and the strength of 3^ 4^ «.
the teeth little uiore than wliat is neoeasary to resist tlie
action or force of a common dock weight through the
wheels. They are what may be calletl tlie locking
teeth, as will be more readily seen from the use of them
afterwards to be explained. Those calletl the impulse
teeth, consist of very small tempered steel pin», inserted
on tlie surface of the rim of the whiel on one side only.
They are nearly tw > !'an inch in height ; and the

smaller they are, s<j i 1 c room will be given to the

thickness of the pallets, if they have strength to sup-
port about eighty or a hundretl grain*, they will be
strong enough. There is no rule required for placing
them rdatively to the locking teeth, only they may
as well be opposite these teeth as anywhere rise. 1', 1'
are the pallets, whose centre of motion it the same with
that of the verge at a. These pallcU are formed to
as to have the arms lufficiently »trong, and at the
same time as light as may be. ' That part where the
arms meet at the angle at a, has a steel socket made out
of the sane pi»re as the arms, being forged together in
tbia manner. Thi< socket is otade to fit well on the
verge, on which it is only twisted fatt s and is turned

Kty tntall on the outside, in order to allow the ar^
of th« datcnU to be hid as dose to the nm as
may ba, so that thrir centres of motion may roindae aa
ncaolj aa poarible. A perfect coincidence of Uie centres
might ba obtained by using a hoUow c^ linder for the
rmwf, with the detent arlMrs running in the inside of
it, bnt tbia would have ocoaaiened more trouble. That
part of the pallet frame, as it may be called, in which
u set the ati I <-ceiving the action or impulse

of the small 1 . is formixl into a rectangular

shape, so aa to allow room for a dovetail groove, into
which the slon* pallets sre fixed, as may be seen
at I'P, Fig. S, and at I', Fig. 4, which alto gives a >'«■*■
side view of the verge at a, and where the socket of
the pallets ia seen as fixed cx) the verge. At b. Fig.
4, is aeen the outer cod of one of tM atone pallcU
flnah with thr steel. That part of the stone pal-

F'g-

cu, wiu Da MaacnMi, OMwc^nantlT toe nlwl
lilt nor* eaaily be unlodied bjr th« pendaMm : bene*
we may expect a small increase in the ate of ribn*
tion ; but whether this will sflect the thnakcvpirit, by
makmg it skw, must be left to the rapcrienca of thcae
who may think of making aacfa trials. It appears to
us, that if any longthaniog of the arc of vibration
takca place, it will be equally acccferalcd by tho gnralcr
tcnaioa oflhc spring part of the palletsi

Another dock having the same kind of 'ifapiumii,
haa since been made by Mr Thonsaa Rdd, wboro the
adjnatments fur '•miKtnrrii nml \\^^t ar^ traasAticd
from the p Wy thia aria,

«h«« "•''" : .—. . ii>«de, but are

«••«•< Ker to which the palltis ate

f*P»«' • ^""e by the screws wlmh are

m thtm. This 'scapement haa also been very advan-
lagcously appli4d, even where a verge md cratch were
#iwuted.

The following is a sdwotc and iWarriptieo of another
•OL. u. rARr I.

I which the pin teeth act, may be seen in
9, wkara they art rapnawtoj in their napoedve po-
rfdonordalieo loth* pin tMlh. Tboir akpoorforai ia
oaclhr that which gives tho dond boat. In Fig.S. are
ncn tho detents J, d, whose eentr* of motion is at r, e.
Thn are fisad on their arbors by a thin steel socket,
maM as forged with the detents, much in the same way
M the pallets were, s* may be M-m at r. Fig. 5, whidi |.",g, {,
mvca a side view of one of tite ilrtents and its arbor.
The screws *t,jj, in the arms of the detents, liave a
place made to receive them, which is more readily seen
m Fig. 5. than in Fig. 5. I'he screws e, t, serve for the
purpose of adjusting that part of the 'acaperrt-"' <-'»'"rct-
ed w ith the pallets, push ing the detents uu t : 1 iig

the wheel, oy meonsof thr I ■'^ •>' of

tho sorwie,can tho unlotl .of

thestonepallets, rneof vkhuli i. .ail^l'^. 4.

The text^»f,J', serve toadjukt tl of the wheel

teeth on the rietrnts. p. — ' .. > rectangular pieces or
studs, which are fixrti idc of \bt pillar frsme

plate, and may benraran iiku jh height Therndsoflhe
screw sy,/ rest on the tide of tl.ese ttudt, and according
aa they arc more or leas aciewed through at the ends i>f

192

HOROLOGY.

E«c«pe- tlie iJetents, so much less op more hold will the detent
toxni*- pieces hHve of the teeth. These holdiiij^ pieces of the dc-
. " tents are not represented in the drawing, as they would
clock have made other parts of it rather obscure. They are

•soipement made of stone, an"l are fitted in by means of a dovetail
by Mrneiil. cut in a piece let\ for that purpose, on tlie inside of the
PiATK detent arms, as may easily be conceived from the draw-
o^'i't'''^' '""• where it is rt-presented in part at e, Fig. 5 ; and
' ' ■ is in the line across the arm with the screw e, which
is close by tlie edge of the detent stone-piece, which
jirojects a little beyond the end of the screw. Having
descril)ed the parts of the 'scapement, we shall now ex-
plain their mode of action. On the left hand side, the
^in-tooth is represented as having just escaped its pal-
let, as seen in P'ig. S ; but, previous to its having got
on to the flanch of this pallet, let us conceive that the
back of the pallet, or end piece h of it, had come, in
consequence of the motion of the pendulum, to that
side, and opposing the screw e, which is in the detent
arm, pushes or carries it on with it, and consequently
unlocks the tooth of the wheel which then endeavours
to get forward ; but the pin-tooth, at this instant of un-
locking, meeting with the flanch of the pallet at the low-
er edge inside, and pushing forwards on the flanch, by
this means impels the pendulum, and after having es-
caped the pallet, the next locking tooth is received by
the detent on the right hand side, where the wheel is
now again locked. In the mean time, while the pen-
dulum is describing that part of its vibration towards
the left hand free and detached, as the pallets are now
at liberty to move freely and independently of the
small pin-teeth, on the return of the pendulum to the
right hand side, the detent, by means of the back of the
pallet on that side, is pushed out from locking the
wheel, and, at the instant of the unlocking, the wheel
gets forward, and the piu-tooth is at the same instant
ready to get on the flanch of its pallet, and give new
impulse to the pendulum, as is obvious by what is
represented in the drawing. Fig. 3. After the pin-
tooth has escaped the pallet, the wheel is again lock-
ed on the opposite or left hand side; the pendulum
moves on to the right freely and independently till the
next locking on the left takes place, and so on. It may
be observed, that the unlocking takes place when the
pendidum is near the lowest point, or point of rest, and
of course where its force is nearly a maximum. Without
attaching any thing to the merits of this 'scapement, we
may remark that the clock was observed from time to
time by a very good transit instrument, and, during a
period of eighty three days, it kept within the second,
without any interim apparent deviation. This degree'
of time-keeping seemed to be as much a matter of ac-
cident as otherwise ; and cannot reasonably be expected
from this, or any clock whatever, as a fixed or settled
rate.
Method of This 'scapement being a detached or free 'scapement,
^*'«;a"e- '''"' ^* pleasure be converted either into a recoiling or
ment either ^ ^^^^ heat one, without so much as once disturbing or
into a re- stopping the pendulum a single vibration. To make a
coiling or a dead beat of it, put in a peg of wood, or a Small wire to
dead-beat each, so as to raise the detents free of the pallets ; and
""^' these being left so as to keep them in this position, the

pin-teeth will now fall on the circular parts of the pal-
lets, and so on to the flanch, and the 'scapement is then,
to all intents and purposes, a dead beat one. To make a
recoiling one of it, let there be fixed to each arbor of the
detents, a wire to project horizontally from them about
3^ or 4 inches long ; the outer ends of the wires must be
tapped about half an inch in length; provide two small
brass balls, half an ounce weight eachj having a hole

through them, and tapped so as to screw on the Fsc«pe-
wires ; the b;ills can be put more or less home, and be jnentS'
adjusted proportionably to the force of the clock on the '' ~

penduhmi. No recoil will be seen by the seconds' hand ;
yet these balls will alternately oppose and assist the mo-
tion of the pendulum, as much as any recoiling pallets
can possibly do; and as their effects on the pendulum
will be exactly the same, it may be considered as a good
recoiling 'scapement. This sort of detached 'scapement,
by becoming a dea<l beat, or a recoiling one, at any time
when required, makes it convenient for making various
experiments with tiie different 'scapements.

We shall now proceed to describe a clock 'scape-
ment, whose pallets require no oil, invented by the late
Mr John Harrison, who received the parhamentary
reward of £ 20,000 for a marine time-keeper.

In Plate CCCI. Fig. 6. S W is the swing-wheel, Hnrrison's
whose teeth are shorter than usual. On the verge is a '''"<^''
brass arm, of a sort of cross and flat pronged form, as ^"t*]^''?*")
may be seen at e, e, e, Fig. 6. and at e, e, Figs. 7. and 8. p','^'te °' *
Upon this arm are screwed two brass-cocks, marked d, d, CCCI. Fig.',
in Fig. 6. and d in Figs. 7. and 8 ; the upper pivots of 6, 7, 8.
the pallet arbors, as seen at a, Figs. 7. and 8. run in
these cocks, and the lower pivots in the end of the
prongs. On the lower end of the pallet arbors is a
brass socket to each, having freedom to move easily on
tiiem, and also a proper end-shake between the prongs
and the pallet amis. On the end of the socket.?, next the
pallet arm.s, is rivetted a thin piece of brass to each, the
piece on the socket of the driving pallet being shaped as
seen at h, h, Figs. 6. and 7- and having two holes in it :
one of these holes has a range, limited by a pin fixed to
the brass arm from the verge ; the other hole, which is
at the outer end, allows range to a pin, which is fixed
to an arm on the pallet arbor, as may be seen at Figs. 6.
and 7. The piece of brass on the socket of the leading
pallet arbor is shaped as seen at k, k, Fig.?. 6. and 8.
having a tail which comes to rest on the outer edge of
the cock rf, after being carried a little way by the mo-
tion of the pallet ; at the outer end, at k, is a small
brass screw, serving as a counterbalance to the opposite
arm or pallet hook. In this pallet arm is an opening,
throngh which the swing- wheel comes, as may be seen at
/, Fig. 8. the arm at the other end being filed thin down,
leaving a sort of shoulder on it. AB, Fig. 6. is a stout
piece of brass rivetted, or screwed, to the verge collet;
CC is the steel crutch, having another arm, which comes
up on the inside of the piece of brass ; the ball or paume
of the crutch is kept to the verge collet by a sort of
spring collet, which has two screws outside, and through
to the verge collet, the crutch having liberty to turrt
on the vergfe. The piece of brass AB has two short
knees turned up, having a hole tapped in each to re-
ceive the two screws s, s, Fig. 6. whose ends bear on
the upper arm of the crutch, and serve to move the
arm to one sitle or the other, so as to put the pendulum
or clock on beat ; p, p, is a piece of liard wood put on
the lower end of the crutch, having an opening in it,
to clip or take in with the middle rod of a gridiron pen-
dulum.

The parts of this 'scapement being described, it now Mode of ao
remains to explain their action. The tooth of the tion in Har-
swing- wheel, which has hold of the hook of the leading "so>''s p»l-
or right hand pallet, carries it on, until another tooth
meets with the hook or notch at the end of the
driving pallet arm. When this takes place, the wheel
is made to recoil a little back; at this instant, the
hook of the leading pallet gets free of the tooth, and is
made to rise clear of the top of it, by means of the
counterbalancing of the brass arm, and the screw k at

HOROLOGY.

1^

(bt «oil a£ it. Tbe toodi of the nriiw- w{>ecl, which lui«
avm gU into tbe notch at the end of the driving pallet
urn, Carrie* itfarward until anothar toath, meeting with
the hook of the laadini; pallet, canaca the wheel again to
momI. TimaUowf the notch of tbe drLvin^ Ballet to Mt
Irce of the tooth, and the braat piece, whicL i« on Utc
pallet arbor, fidla down, till it coraea to re»t on the piu
m the braM croa* piece, maktnc the pallet notch get
quite clear of the top of tbe tooui, and ao on. There ia
a giMt deal of it^anuitT diapl^ed in the ooatrivance
ofthia 'toafeaieiit, vat the nice and tickli^ tMlandtig
of the ptUet* iirraaiani aeaac U^rae of meaftaintj in
their ofMfatiooa; aad whether the great raooil which it
baa anmr net b« >gri — ' the tima-kaeiHi^ of the clock,
t— ■w^parhapa.yttebepiwd. Waa it ihia 'acape-
mmUL which waa in • dodt of Mr HaniaonX at hit
hMM* in Orange Stnc*. «f whoae goiiy Mr Short aaid,
" Tha* beceuU AtftnA on it to oae mmmn/ I'a a mnalk"
and *' that it had DMi going for fouttceo year* at thia

The prapctttea of a good

lod 'wammmt are, that the
iiBelteig tatxm ahovid i>a applied ia ibe caoat uMfonn
' aoddiiMt way, and with the leait friction and laa* of
netivefctce; that it raqvirr litile oil. or none ; aadlhat
the aadllaliena of the wnwller, wbalbrr it ia a pandit
•Imb «r abalanca. be made in a* faae and iintliahlrhad'a
Tbe nice eacouiion nooind
iar a dacii or • wa*a, tmt
af the aUMiliiia af wad
tbajr. ia ioaw •aMMM, icat ligktaf thaynMMiaaoflhe
pefnhiian<.«a!— UaaAataftWapiralar taltaw pa»-
duliaa «MW. and ihowht (iMt iha fim»>immmm ef

HotpitaL

n a

tbiM, «i«lMnt eonaidariM, that ihia, from
Kea wMUy, or ahaaat whAy. in the pen-
liuluaa and in the spiral (priag. BaHhnua iaipataas no*
tion hka this to HarnKon. fm attasptiag la anke the
'aaifMmt in hi* tiwcfcai^rr ao that the long and tboet
vihnitiaaa •houki be otaile in aaual tiaaca. Wbeteaa be
aaya. " he aagbt to harva laokaa for ihia in the itodwa.
nompmpetty of thrtpiralar tialanrw yin^ Bat tfaa
property (h«ad(k)wa*unknawi»altbattiaMlPtbeEi^
Iikh ani«t» : and wa* a diKtMrcty of thoaa in France,
fracii «h<icn lir Fiifiltrh artitu aitrrwartU obtained IL'
rKT^m If tint br the cmtt, tio« d>d it happen that Mr Mnib)e,
!^^.^!^ long helot* tbe pcf«Ml when Lc Bay mmI BertbMid &.
** "^ 'm«( Ibe pronnty of thia apirai epiia^ each

tbe aerit of nairtng fint aade tbe diacwvoy.
<iSianad in bia liac^ pntJiiberi ai ITfiS. " That Ibe
•priag. (Vvaa phrMsal arinoBba,
peffonn the leng and the ahert «ih«-
i" lielaameirihblHnDrilaohe'a

■I,

■«nbau4

•hich ho waa wall awiaaiiilad ; aMlnMi
pr 'PnBR* *•• known to Dr Hoafce. and aainC*

«d «ul b^F haa aaorly an baadrod yaaia before Madge
pahMied hie pMnnblat h i* bat too true, that Grw or
B"< ' EagVanaMMlaaaen tobavc baea aefaaiat.
•<> '« pwpwliie ^ very lately, dMagh Mr

X niad lb«a oat ao long baAa*. aad

tl coaiaiaedialhewarkaafDrMaobe.

{loyidMd at Pari* in 17fi7,
nM«di*l«rt.bintoflb«e
KimokxkK I iliariifriag; beaoetbey weienati
there at the tiaae when L«|HM* wrote, iilbwaiai be

It waa toon t^M this,
Ibeft iIm diwmee aoiMMnaod between >UIUy aid Jea.

the peaduluei ipring
while at the

Wattb tnahaea alwi^a
for tbe watchn of tbor wwa

same time knowing uotliing of iU properties, the gene- £•«?•►
ral practice wa« to taper them, so that the coils, when ._"^*^.
bending or unbending, ibould preserve an equal di»- ~ .' ~
taiMX with one onotJier ; and this method has been used
e^MT aince the application of the !<piral spring. Those
who finished watches fur Mud<^ aud Dutton, were never
employed to make tlte pendulum spring. This was al>
w^s done at liome by either kludge or Duttou the(&>
aalvea, wbi^ no doubt, endeavoured to make tliem a*
nearly iaochronou* as possible. This, among other causes,
perbapa gave their watohe* the celebrity which they at
that time had deaervadly acquired.

The palleU of the 'acapenent at the turret clock in
Greenwich Uoapital, are aaid to have been contrived by
Mr Sroeaton. The foUowiitg narrative will (>how how
he came to be concerned in it. It may be observed,
that at that tiuK- he was one of the oommlasionera.

Tbe turret clock, » hith is in the cupola of Greenwich F,,c»pnn«M
Hecpital, was undertaken by tlie late Mr John Holme*, of the tur.
and eaecutctl under his directions by Mr Tliwaitea. ret-ciock ai
liut before any thing was done, Mr Iloliucs consult- Gr««iwich
ed two gcntlaBen, wno happened to be liis mukt inti-
mate fiMnda; the one was the Bev. Mr Ludlam of
Camfaeidge, the other Mr John Smeaton, both of whom
wore very eminently qualifietl to give such advice a*
waa wanted in this buaiuow, not only about tlte 'scape-
■Mnt, but how every part of the clock ahould be fitted
up, ao aa to iniurc salciy ai;<' iti< {terfunnanoe.

very Um and n)a«>> ' r» (of wliich Mr

,iie*, loaagh itone ol lite original* were ever
L) peaird between them en that occasion, and
-aeinaaaiadlittgaHiily. Th^ agreed that ihe'acepement
ebaald have araMil. Mr Smaaton reeonaaonded, that
Ibe paUata, in piece of having plan>»,<a wja eeaiiaon for
ibdraeliaK^atta, atiouM have curved »ui<aora, the lead-
itypaUetMiafleancave.aiid the driving one convex i and
wEtn ibe penoahini waa at or n<'<>- <•• >Iu •vtr.niitv of
tbe vibration, the 'aaipanient >•! riy

dead. Thi* waa, a* be said, vrliat . . ^^ at

Yofb had ultimately come into !" M ' •dviaact

that the swing whwl Iteth altould U ;..... ..iid dee^

and of aach a shape as to roll a* it were on the pallet^
and not to alide en them, which would pi«vcnt bitii^
er wearing. The pallet arau were of bnas, made no aa
to pat it in the nd^- - *' rhe clockmaker to take the
aaOeta very easily <> rr)iairii« was necessary.

Tllcae BMruioda liatt lunv iirlurc ll ' ' 7 !.ur-

riaon, and woraadeptaainackiik il-

i^g«^C^ilai40e,a*aieationcdb> Mr Lu<iii.n<. iirubU ■ ul>.
hn<g eiwfceee man atr>ngiy adt i>ed by tbem. MrSin«»>
Ion at ihi* paeiad look away g«dgr<>fM> luait a mill wbeet
wbaae dianeler* were oi4y i\ iarli< «, uid put other* in
ibetr piece at % inrhe* with grrat MirceM, aa it ai\e».
ward* proved. On lb«»iimv prineip)«<* whirh Imvr juet
ao» ■ ■ • the

cUk ^ - . . ' w't

Chiir«ih, Ivtlailiwtgh , aiMl >• ■
Cpr aboat tbir^ J<ar», ther<
peaMBce of hitwg ee weariiu( mi <■

'Stapoaenla have been uivid*
whKb haa been aallcd tho»e et
>iow, tbe iDH'baiBi af « raawnti
aay 'snap«tnfnt. and even ihea itcen
iennapartofit, uMtc than the wheel* <
or the weight whiefa aave* them.

Tbe DMttve force paaeing tbroHch tbe wheels, ta^ Beraiwitoir,
at luaea be anti^uslly impaneed himi tbe
aieni eiliwr of « cloUt ut walah. This idea
rise to tbe invanlien of what ha* been called r«

'!»-

of
id.
to
to

lit.

124

HOROLOGY.

Description
of the re-
montoir
which was
applied to
the dock
of St An-
drew*9
thiirch,
Rdinbargh.

toirs^ that is, that the movement should at intervals be
made to wind up eitlier a small weiglit, or bend up a
delicate spring, which alone should give its force to the
'scapenaent, by which means the pendulum or balance
was supposed to be always impelled by an equal and
uniform force. The earliest thin;» of this sort was used
about the year 1 600. Huygens applied it to some of his
clocks, and gives a description of it in his Horologium
OiCiUatot turn ; and Harrison had one in the marine
timekeeper, which gained him the great reward. VVe
are of opinion, that they are of no great use either to a
clock or a spring time-piece; for if the pendulum of the
one is well fixed, and the momentum of the ball is not
too little, any small inequalities of the motive force
through the wheels will hardly be percepiible; and in
the spring time-keeper, the isochronism of the pendu-
lum or balance spring is sufficient to correct any ine-
qualities whatever in its motive force. As their me-
chanism, however, is curious, and has been rarely de-
scribed, it may not be uninteresting to our readers to
have such an account of it as would enable them to
make and adopt it should they think it proper.

The one which we propose to describe, is that which
was contrived by Mr Reid for the clock of St Andrew's
church. Suppose a small frame, separate and indepen-
dant of the clock frame, to contain two wheels, one of
which is the swing wheel, having within it the 'scape-
ment work. The other wheel is crossed out, so as to be
as light as may be, the rim being left just so broad
as to admit fixing on it seven kneed pieces or teeth,
each about a quarter of an inch thick and half an inch
long, three of which are on one side of the rim, and four
on the other side. Three on each side have the knees
of different heights, corresponding each to each. The
fourth is a little higher than either of the third highest.
The wheel on which these are fixed, has a tooth pro-
longed beyond the rim, of the same thickness and length
as the others, making eight teeth in all, having a small
space left between each. These teeth become as it were
80 many wheels in different planes, and are at equal dis-
tances from one another, with the same extent of radius
coming to the centre of the swing wheel arbor, being
just so much larger than that of the swing wheel, as to
allow the swing wheel teeth to clear the arbor of it.
The edge or side of the teeth which rest on the swing
wheel arbor is a plane, and rounded off on the opposite
side, to the point or angle formed by this plane. The
arbor of the swing wheel has eight notches cut into it
a little beyond the centre. These correspond to the
eight teeth of the other wheel, and are sufficiently wide
and deep to allow the teeth to pass freely through them.
Each notch stands at an angle of 45 degrees to the one
which is next it, which difference is continued along
the arbor through the whole, making 360 degrees for
one revolution of the swing wheel. On each of the ar-
bors of these wheels was fixed a pulley having a square
bottom, in which were set about ten hard tempered steel
pins a little tapered, something like the pullies at the
old thirty hour clocks, whose bottom was round in place
of square. The pendulum was fixed to the wall of
the steeple, as well as the frame containing the 'scape-
ment work, and the apparatus which has been descri-
bed. The arbor of the eight toothed wheel had one of its
pivots prolonged with a square on the end outside. The
clock frame containing the movement was in the cen-
tre of the steeple, and the pinion in it, which suppose
to be that of the swing wheel, had one of its pivots also
prolonged, and squared outside. These squared pivots
were connected by a steel rod and Hooke's joints. The

main weight of the clock being put on, must urge not
only the wheels to turn, but that of the wheel having the
kneed teeth ; but some one or other of these teeth pres-
sing on the arbor of the swing wheel cannot turn, con-
sequently none of those in the large frame can turn,
nor can the swing wlieel turn here unless some other
means are used. An endless chain was j)rovided, and
passed over the two pullies fixed on the wheel arbors,
and through two common pullies, to one of which is
hung the small weight which is to turn round the swing
wheel, and to the other a counter weight. The
weight which turns the swing wheel, has its force
placed on that side so as to make the wheel act proper-
ly with the pallets; now, while the swing wheel is turn-
ing, (the pendulum being supposed in its motion,) one
of the other wheel teeth is gently pressing on its arbor.
Whenever this tooth meets with its own notch, it will,
by means of the main weight, be made to pass quickly
through it ; while passing, the small weight is wound
up a little by the main one; the succeeding tooth then
meeting with the swing wheel arbor, rests on it for a
quarter of a minute, till its notch come* about ; it then
passes in its tuni, and so on. The swing wheel makes
a revolution every two minutes, in which time the
wheel with the eight teeth makes also one. The mi-
nute hand, by this mechanism, when passing one of the
notches, makes a start every quarter of a minute; at
every such passing, the small weight is wound up a lit-
tle by the great or main one. After the clock had gone a
considerable time with this, it was found that the kneed
teeth got a little swelled on their parts of rest, by
the force of the main weight which made them fall
on the swing wheel arbor. To remedy this, an endless
screw wheel was put on the arbor of the remontoir whee},
(or wheel with the kneed teeth,) working into an upriglrt
endless screw, on the upper end of whose ai-bor was
fixed a pretty large fly, in order to lessen the velocity of
the remontoir wheel, and make the kneed teeth fall
gently on the swing wheel arbor. This helped the
swelling greatly, but did not entirely prevent it, though
it existed now in a less degree. The endless chain had
also a tendency to wear fast; in consequence of this, and
of no provision having been made for the swelling of the
kneed teeth, by making the notches on the swing
wheel arbor much wider than was required for them
when newly finished and first applied, this part of the
remontoir was taken away, and the rod, with Hooke's
joint, was put on the square of a pivot of the swing
wheel prolonged on the outside of its frame. These
matters being guarded against, it might be well for
some artist in future to try such a remontoir. During
the four years it was in use, the clock went uncommon-
ly well, and was the admiration of a gentleman who
lived opposite the church, and who was an amateur in
horology. One of Mr Reid's men who took an interest
in this clock, said it did not do so well after the remon-
toir was taken away. This, however, may have been
more owing to a change in the position of the weights,
than to any thing else, occasioned by a chime of eight
large bells being put up in the steeple. For the weights,
in place of having their natural fall, were carried a great
way up in the steeple above the bells and clock, in order
to fall down again ; and here a complication of rollers
and pullies became requisite.

Harrison's remontoir is a very delicate spring,
which is bent or wound up eight times in a minute.
Were it necessary, a more obvious description could be
given of it than that which is given with his time-
keeper. In Haley's, the remontoir spring is bent up

Escape-

ments.

Description-
of itic re-
montoir
whicli was
applied to
the clock
of St An-
drew's
Cliurch, '
Kdinburglv

Harrison'*, i
remontoir. i

Halej's.

HOROLOGY.

125

Etute-

ttmig^'t

ChKfa witk

150 tiiacs in • minute. In th« '«c*p«nent of Mudge's
marine timekeepers, what may be called the remontoir
waa bent up :MK> times in a minute ; the 'acapement
bcre, become in aane degree wholly the remontoir. A
variety of 'acapenMnts mav be seen in TJkioul, and in
•oine ef the modem periodical works; yet, for the |>4ir>
poaeof cwnmon or otdiiMry tort of dodo, they are
HWiflwd chied3r to dwae of the dead beat and the recoiL
Wlwii eeuaaU iwfuiwiLii h expected, lome may have
iceoone to 'aeapeBcnta ct a diffewut deacriptiew.

AboMt the jtmr t7M, Le Roy, Lcpente^ and other
cinrkmekera in Pkrn, were mnch encaged in making
docks baring only one wheel; and some bed not
even a single wheel io the morcment. They were,
however, more e»pen»ve in making, and performed
^^ whidi w^ consd^ucted in

the otdinary war. Simplicity in the madiincry secnM
to hare been their chief ebj|ect. It requires, how<

ia abccJ
vgrk am-

experience to know what simplicity in machi*

ia; althoogfa apparently more ample, a clock

having two wbeds in it, wiU not be equal to that h*.

ring three or figor;^ it does not folk>w, th«l, by having

■ " " ter: it

wfaick

be eecntepped with impunity. This subject

be better rxeinplificd thai by making a comp*-

of one ef Hindley's decka, having two wheeia,

mad giviag tliif^ vibntiena in a nmiute, with a dork

giving the saae — mher ti viiratiens in the same time

and with three wbeela. The ftnt or great wheel, in

one ef Hindley'a, had ItOtaelh, the accend or swing

whsd l*a and the pinaa & The nonbtr of these

teath. aMioftheptnianleBvaa,MMintotoSOew In the

athar, the wheeU were 48. 40, aid 90, and two pinions

of 8; thesumof theaeia 154; thedilknnee ia t7», be-

iiw the aoBber ef teeth move in the one than in the

other, and aiere than the soa of tbe tactb io the

three wheeled dock.

We ahall now preered tn give a dMetaeeaaat of such
watch 'arapewimts a* have ba«i diiwif t* wanhy of no.
tioe, fram the old crowniAed and verge le the mo-
dem 6«e or datadied 'aa|MaMnl ; bifrt. hi erdar thet the
> raadar may be eble to <air
;;r^ "^ given A«m Bertheml a view of «i

TxH^r"" if* **<cfa or a aaiaO dodj^ Tll^ ■• cwHaiuad in a
( iciL ftaaae aaade Ibr the purpose ef allewing dkini to be
»«.!. aMce nadOy aain. UE ia the pOlar ptaH or pillar
OP the Ore fVmne plate. A is the be.
the arbar or axis on which it is fxed ia the
verge, whoae two pallMs^ p, acane with the teeth of
the crown wfaod C. Tbenivaliortfaebidnee tarn or
ru in iheAnme; thoae ef the own whs

H. bMh ef wfaidi are acMved enthe iMide ef Se

the arbor of the pMen rf bdng at right

Bxasoftkebalanea. Tbe csntnto wheel K

CtnnalsointheAeme; theteethefthe

Cf and of Iimeadt,

anrinloihe
andte

onUMe wbad pitdi into the balance (or oown) wbed
pMen, and can tarn or drive it ; tbe third wheel I..

wCSldi

ro the
alpitdi into ihe

pinion e. heve a long
eftbedialRS. Tba

the teeth of the
whed pinion, and
M and its

flofag beyond die outside
wnad M, pildMe with Ibe
Ibwd wbed pinian i, wbicb it likewise can turn. N is
tbe an* or great wheel, pitching with the second
liana. XistherMcbet, mtfaedick. and a its
Oa the arbor of the gtm whed Uw nUbct

is fixed; and, on winding up the main spring, the Eienpt-
ratcbet and arbor turn freely in the hole at the centre °|'°**'_,
of the great wheel, which keeps its place during the ^^^'^ ^J_
time of winding. Ol' is the main spring deprived of jcriptjon of
its barrel ; tbe inner end of it hooks on to tlie lower . «atdi
part of the great wheel arbor, and the outer end is movement
hooked to the rim of the barrel, but is here fixed to a l^'- *.'*''-
temporary stud. The force of the main spring, alter ^,9" .
being wound up, sets all the wheels and pinions in ''' "
motion, and would oblige the ratchet and arbor to tium
round independent of the great wheel ; b^ this the
main spring would be instantly unbent, but is prevent*
ed from this, by the click m being forced by its
spring ft to fall into the teeth of the ratdiet, applying
its end to the face of the ratchet teeth ; by this means
the main spring must unbend itself very slowly, the
raotien of tne wheels being checked by the 'scaping of
the verge with the crown wheel teeth. Q is the can*
noD pinion, put spring tight on the arbor of the second
whed, whose socket or cannon goes outside or beyond
the diidt where it is squared ibr the purpose- of the
minote bmid-bdng pat on it. T is the mutute wheel,
g ita pinion ; the cannon pinion pitches into or leada
the minute wheel ; the hour wheel V having a hollow
arbor or aocket /, is put on the cannon pinion, and is led
by tbe minote pinion which pitches into its teeth. It is
on the socket of the hour wheel which comes a little
above the did, that the hour hand is put. When a
wheel pitches with a niniun and turns it, the pinion -is
said to l>e driven by the wheel ; if the pinion turns the
wheel, the whed is then aaid to be led by tlie pinion. The
pendulum or balance spring s $ has its inner end fixed
to a ooUct, which goes spring tight on the arbor of the
balance ; the outer end is fixed or pinned to a stud
fisedon the inside of the fore plate. Ia the action of
the crown whed teeth on the pallets, the balance »prtng
ia ettbir brat sp or nnbcnding ; it is by the small force
ef it, that the oalanee ia made to give twice the num«
bar of eifanbona that it would give without it. It
aboold bant been obserred, that, by putting a key on
the square of the cannon pinion, and tuniing it about,
this wdl not only move the minute hand about, but
will oblige tbe hour hand to follow slowly, in the ratio-
of one turn te-twclvc of llie minute head.

The irat nahAea may readily be supposed to have
been of rade eMelkn. Having no pendulum spring,
and only an boor hand, and bring watmd op twice a
day, tb^ could not be expected to keep time nearer than
IB le Tfl iniwrtw in ihiilwaline hnnri AfW tbe appli<
ef tba ninilalnni ipring, they would no doubt go
ballar, and may now hemada to heeptUM
ly earfeet fee tbe ordinary parpoaaa of UAl
' n the cMwn wbed and verge 'srapement
it aMOMid wjib care, it will do aaooaunoniy well
Let tbe angle of the verge be 9S or 95 degrees, tbe Crawn
tretb ef tbe crown wheel oadcrcnt to an sngle of •<m«I snd
88 or 90 dcgiaasi and scaped as itrar to the body of .^'V
the verge m jest to be^cnr of it, (it is to bo under- l^^^^l
stood here that the verge boles are jewelled.) To carr\ *,^ nui W
the matter still farther, the body may so far be Ukeii of eiccut.
away as to admit the teeth near to the centre, which '"g ■••
win tend to allow the vibrations of the balance to movF
nMire (Vedy and independently ; but this requires such
nice aaeoation Acre, and in other parts of the 'scape-
nitt, that from not having enoonrngement, few are fit
to execute it, and theraftwe it may in general be safer not
to bring tbe whed teeth so near to tbe verge. Caremuit
alio be taken to have the balance of a prAper diameter
and weight, which hai of late bcco much neglected

126

HOROLOGY.

Ufcape-

menu.

Relative
position of
the balance
wheel and
contrate
"heel ar-
bors.

On theptli'
dulum
spring coU
let.

since the old fashion of half thninf? luis been left off,
that is, niakin<f the watch go without the pendulum
spring, if it goes slow SO, S2, or 33 minutes in the
hour, the balance may he considered of such a weight
as to be in no danger of knocking on the banking from
any external motion the watch may meet with in fair
wearing. M'hen the pullets of the verge are banked on
pins in the potence, they should, to prevent straining,
both bank at the same time, alternately the face of one
pallet on a pin, when tlie back of the other is on its pin;
or the banking may be done by a pin in the nm of the
balance, but not near the edge of it. Which of the two
b preferable, we shall not stop to determine.

The verge wntch, as has been alreatly said, when pro-
perly executed, will perform extremely well. Aboutthir-
ty years ago or more, the writer of this article had some of
them made up in such a way, that they went fully as well
as any horizontal 'scapement, and for a longer time ; this
last requiring oil to the cylinder, after going ten or twelve
months. Oil, however, should never be allowed to
come near the wheel teeth or pallets of a verge.
^V^erge or contrate wheel watches have, of late years,
been very much overlooked and neglected in many
respects, and in none more so than in the relative
position of the balance wheel, and contrate wheel ar-
bors. They are rarely seen but at a considerable dis-
tance from one another, which gives a very oblique
direction in the pitching of the contrate wheel with the
balance wheel pinion. It is well known, that where
force is indirectly or obliquely applied, it will work
under great disadvantage. These arbors ought to be
placed as near to each other as can be. In order to ob-
tain this, reduce the balance wheel pinion arbor lorvards
the end to the smalhsl size it will hear, and turning a
hollow out of that of the contrate wheel, will allow
them to come very near the line of their centres. To
get this pitching to the greatest advantage, some place
the counter potence within the arbor of the contrate
wheel, so as to have the line of the balance wheel pi-
nion direct to the centre of the contrate wheel, as may be
seen in Plate CCCII. Fig. 1.

It has been recommended by a very celebrated ar-
tist, that the movement wheels should be placed in such
a manner as to act at equal distances from the pivots of
those pinions which they drive, in order to divide the
pressure or action of the wheel between the pivots, and
that one should not bear more than the other. This is ap-
parently sound reasoning; but having put it in execution,
the pivots unexpectedly seemed to wear very fast, even
more so than in the common barred movement ; the
pivots, it is true, were small, and the motive force ra-
ther great. It is to be wished that it were again tried
by others to bring it to the test. No pivots have
been found to stand so well as those in movements of
the double barred sort.

A pendulum spring collet, made as it ought to be,
is as seldom to be met with, as that which we have no-
ticed regarding the position of the contrate and balance-
wheel arbors. Yet simple as the thing is, it seems to
require a rule to shew Iwrv it should be done, there
appearing to be none, if we may judge by the greatest
part of those which have hitherto been made. The
ring of the collet should be no broader than to al-
low a hole to receive the pendulum spring, and the
pin which fixes it. 1 he sit in the collet, for the pur-
pose of its being always spring tight on the inside taper
of a cylinder or verge collet, should be put close to
where the small end of the pin comes, when the spring

£*enpe-
nicnts.

is pinned in. The pendulum spring, in this case, •will
have the first or inner coil at such a distance, as to al- _

low the point of a small screwdriver to get into the slit ~ V"*
without any danger to the spring, when it is wanted to
set the collet and spring to any required place. If the
slit is put at the other end of the pin, where it is oftener
than anywhere else, it is evident that the workman can-
not get into it without danger. The outer end of the
pendulum spring ought to be pinned or fixed into a
brass stud or cock, in performing which operation it
goes easily on ; whereas with steel cocks or studs, there
is a kind of crossness and trouble, which shews that
they should never be used.

Studs are, in general, very improperly placed, being Pendulum-
at a greater distance from the curb pins than is requi- spiing studj,
site. We have seen this distance so great, that the mo«
tion of the pendulum-spring between the stud and the
pins was such, as to take away a part from every vibra-
tion of the balance ; which is something like a pendu-
lum when suspended to a vibratory cock, where it would
not be allowed to have half the motion it would other-
wise have acquired.

A few years ago, our modern improvers would
have the joint transfierred from the pillar plate to the
brass edge, than which nothing worse could have been
proposed. In the old way, the whole of the move-
ment was kept in its place b)' the united assistance of
the joint, and of the bolt and its spring ; whereas, in
the other way, the movement had its sole de{)endence
on the pins of the braes edge feet, from which it would
be disengaged by violent exercise on horseback, &c.

From what has been said of the imperfections in
watches, it may be seen, that they are inevitable, ari-
sing from a want of energy of mind in workmen, of
which not one in a hundred is possessed. Can it be
supposed, that every new watch, which is purchased,
is conjplete, and requires no assistance .' Whoever
thinks so, must be disappointed. Persons of this de-
scription, on finding it not to go as they expected, bring
it to a watchmaker, many of whom cannot put it in a
better state than that in which the workman left it. But
it is not brought to him with the view of any thing
being done to it, but to see what is the m.itter w ith it ;
never considering, that any irregular goii.g or stopping
must imply some fiiult or other, and is the very cause that
brings them to the watchmaker. It does not follow,
however, from this, that every watch which stops is
badly executed ; this will happen sometimes with those
of the very best execution, and frequently from an over-
nicety of execution. On its being left with him, he
takes it down, to examine what is wanting to make it
keep time. The owner, on being told afterwards that
it will cost so much to make it do what is required,'
strongly suspects, though he is polite enough not to
say it, that there must be some imposition on the
part of the watchmaker. Much is the trouble which
many have of rectifying the faults of work given
in to them, and thought to be complete, and muc^
money is paid to others to have them rectified. We
have known four guineas paid to a workman for do-
ing a particular branch ; and not being executed
to the satisfaction of the watchmaker, he has given
half as much more to another to have it corrected.
There are as few excel in this art as in those of sculp-
ture, painting, and engraving, which are called the
fine arts, a name to which the other is equally enti-
tled, but which labours under the great misfortune that
few or none are able to appreciate its merits.

HOROLOGY.

127

Banc<at>

rt nw to
Urer
Vifnrmit.
PUkTK

CClU.

The okl 'loqpMUM, ercn after the application of the
pendulum ■uiiinuiiotgiviwgtlMlMtiiftcrion which was
re({iiired, {■dMM Hnjrgcaa and Hooke to think of other
■MBiM at impfwii^ it, or ta rabititnte a tuperior me-
dianlm ia it> plaoe. In this pvnoit, the mechanical
talenu of Hooke ■toad eanspieaootly eminent over tboae
of tile justir c«lebialcd HmygcM.

Sonae or the uiunMeiiU of Hnygeru' watches, or
taoe-kecpcra, wen —eh larger than those of our box
•IwiMnaMtmL Th* wtWB vhcc) wm cat into teeth
of the Mnw fiwm as those of the caaiiaoa crown wheel,
and made to 'scape with a vetfe of the usual kind. On
the axis of this vene was a soft of cootrate or crown
wheel, havinif teeth hke tfic ordinaipr contrate wheel,
which drove a pinioa ixed on the axis of the balance.
The rrrffe, wIm "MBpfof with its wheel, caused the
*— '«f«<«" to make teveral twolatiana from every impulse
oathendletK. Sane of thcoi had no pnwlulum- spring,

h«<
the

periurn befioR ita application. When
■evani revohitiam in rvcfr vibration.
In if two aaoondi, this 'scapement would be bat ill
•■itedlbrthe ceils of a pendulum- sprinfT- 1' hose having
thejpanduk— ipiiiiy appeared about 1 67-5. Thi^wasthe
~^ ' of half'thanng, upon seeing, when the pendulum-
I apaliad, that it made the balance give two
ia Oie saaM time that it gave <>ne wichoot it.
Kmket Abeat dw mmc period, Dr Hooke brewght into notiee
'■!iy»im«Bt his watdi with a new 'seapcnaeM ; which, for swcMem
waflia bcKW) he had beevi pnvaiivv cndrai^DurMig to
f9* ihii WW ^^^^ otrruk ffiaiM the old cMm
ode, wad m laaen •» Ikon thai of Hwiensw It
had tw« Hilaawi, as (h* flih of Mch of «Mdi waa a
toQifaed wheal, ailCBiin Mio ooa ■Dattar* The verge
oraiiiafthrwlMlnaa fea4 oath apallrfon it. The
hdanrr-wheei waa te, tmwtag a IkwralchM or aaw.like
its arbor nm m ih* fnaae, panIM to thoae of
at a ponK ttfitHf wHtun nan llMn ; the
rawing, as M wov^ flie aafpco of an eipn*
1*. Whoa a looib of the balance-wheel
oa OBO pallat; tho other, bjr the pitching
of the two vhoeli, waa bfoaglN aboat ta iMal
•oath, (after the wheel had wriyad ftwa tha
the oppealla fide,) ia ordar to fwriv* hapalse ia'ha I
There waa a peMohaMprfay ■■ oaaof the
aad the ol^faci af tfteir Map piMfeed legaiher waa lo
tm<ite>«ttafenwiMJaieliBwaBUM». while it
pafpoae cv Bratpaa anernaiely ahaait
Jl gave someracoil to the wheels bjr
Ahhoagh this was a verjr
eoDtrivancc for a 'Kausimm, jet it appeaie
nal to haverivaa tiMt aatidheWeo whieh waa cxpaocd
AoH it, (pniMMj Aval Innnieal Mecalian, which,
IVam Sally's aetaaat. was the flisa,) Md the oM one was
a§nu adopted. Heeini, seoie jrears afterewds, other
■MfMi^ aaong whom was r>atertre, were mat led by
thh'baBpiwiiil of Or Ifoeke-a. and wet* led, firoaa thae
to Ham, to anke haptuwiaiutt on it. Prooa it ar%i.
nitcd tht doplrx 'scapement, which has of late yaare
been so much in repiite. A large okl Oenaaa dock
had a 'icapeamit o« the ssaw principle ss the ahave, of
which the nakcKsMneiaanknown. Dr HoohifsaWm

The ABMaa Tuaiaian. who «aMr»atod graatljrto
bring the art of Hriialini hi Bn^asd to that r».
(Wtation which H had ae^M, ftr a ha« period of

ajmn or aiofv, darte vUch he pnaliMd it,
a 'laiptBuwi ahoai tllpB, mf '
with bsiay wry wietasiftil. The
tha briaoea vai • mrna sotid

d» pollata, which still gave i
rile raaeliaa of the hslancca.

Taa^iea'

across at the middle, and nearly hATf*!»y<1own ; along
the length way of this jvirt cut • leep angular

notch was made, tbrmin.j n -^r' on the right

hand side: the halancv > tint, «ml much like

DrHoohe's; and the ween the teeth suffi-

ciently wide to allowthe cyhihler totnrn freely between
them. When a tooth tff the wheel im()ellc(l the pal-
let, and when on oscapi t, the icmth following
dropped on the ontstt". vlin.lcr, neir the left
ai^^, n rting on th^ Tiitionof the
babnoe, after peas i < "tine a little
recoil, it got on the pallet, and gave a new impulse,
which was given only at every second vibration. An
excellent property was observ «<1 iii this "scapement, that
any iiie<)aalitie« in the motive force made no deviation
in its time-keeping ; but the fh'ttion of the baUnce

rheel teeth n"
and dcstructi

Knowing w ....; i

under liiin, Ciraham,
work with th" -—i."
succeeded.
generally knoM,

Ttrgt f*

^ Under anil it<i cdgts was so great
■\ as given up in consquence of it
l)ion h«l been doing, l>eing bred
a good many years after, set to
ler 'scapement, and ultimately
this 'scapement \n now pretty
we may be allowed to give an
account t»f what he did. In place of Ttimpion's solid
cyhndcr he mode a hollow one; on the points of the
wheel teeth of Toiapion were raised something like
■aoM pins t>r wftm; on the lops of which a sort of in-
diited or carvKl wedge-like teeth were formed, of such
a length as to hove very little freedom when in the
inside of the cylinder, and the ontside aftherylinder to
hove the saaie flpeedon bet« < >f one tooth

and the heel of the ether. A ' 'g was made

across the cylinder, itot quitr h^it way do^n the dia-
; the edges of the o Ihwler made bv this opening
' to that the curved edge of the tooth might
enthem ; the right hand rd;^^ yrn% ffancned
oatWBid, thehAonenmndea; whenii -watat

rest, and tf>e wheel ia its pfaM* to 'scatx ntoftlie

tooth got then JiMt in on the cylindrr eilges, and no
aisre; a ascend notch ws< mndr (v1(<n the other, to
aWotrdw battoDi of tf \ in^ hardly

a MaMhof Ae etrcumlr'. :<t, the other

laatiat aiare than a ssaikinJe. i'be highest prt o( the
vaogv or nirvsd tooth being on a rirrliv orrntrr or be-
yond that OB which the point was. it ' hat, if
tfMwhMl (a argad forward, it wdlmak. :... ...uderto

tarn, and the angle of 'tcapemmt will be accurding to

the height of the wedge: When a tout'- "*••> vlinder

wheel eMapes from the left edge of i Vr, the

point of it falls into the inside of fi'~ — ns

Boaiiiy tha>», and then passing ar !it

handai^ge; on asaapuig ■• ■'■■■ 'uctc'iung

toath dfDpa on Iho natsi ler, where it re-

C; on the retam of im- i'.Tinn«-r, it gets on the left
edge, gMag a new impulse, and «o on. The
I knpil ot both edffrs of the cylinder, giving bjr
a ribratian to the balance.
This 'scapement tieing the best of anv that had prc>.
esded k, (IMiaufre's perhaps exce)>ted) procured for
Graham's watches a very r. 'le reptiuuon. as

their performance was mud) to that of those

af the dd eoiutructicm. Mowc»cr, on comparing the
of same of (>raham's with tho»e of a later
te, we cnmfrss that none of his, thnuvli excellent,
ever equal to them in thit. The cjllndert
rather herge In diameter, the halaiu-e too light,
the motive force too weak, and he had great <liffi-
mhy in obtaining good pendulum <pring wire, mect-
hif amaliBaa wita iron, where he expected steel

Rtaham't
'•eapenwDt.
Plats
CCCfl.

1S8

HOROLOGY.

wire. Watdies having llie cylinder 'scapement were
not known in F^Mnce till 1728, when Julien Le
Roy commissioned one of them from Gruham. They
were losing their chiiracter here, some time before the
introduction of the duplex, which contributed after-
wards still more to bring them down. The duplex will
in its turn be supplanted, for reasons which will be
afterwards noticed, flat movements, shallow biilance
wheels, steel and brass of ;bad materials, from the diffi-
culty of getting them good, injudicious execution, and
low prices, must have tended to make thecylinder 'scape-
nients so bad as they were of late ; many of the cylinders
were destroyed and cut to pieces in a very few years, and
some of them could not last so long. Let these be
comparnl with the cylinder 'scapements of old Hull,
ma)iy of which that, we have seen, have little or no im-
pression even on their edges, after having been in
use thirty years and upwards. Of what did Hull's art
consist ? There must have been some causes for it ;
but what these are, we shall not attempt to conjecture.
As Graliam, with whom he was instructed, did, Hull
soldered in the plugs of his cylinders, with silver sol-
der, which caused a very tedious process afterwards in
making the cylinder ; but this is not offered as any rea-
son for his excelling in the art of cylinder 'scapement
making. The acting edges of the teeth have hitherto
been made too thin, particularly for steel'cylinders, with
the view of lessening the friction ; but, from cutting
soon, this friction increased, and was worse than a
greater friction which was constant

When the vibrations of the balance are at the lowest
point, the resistance of the pendulum spring is at the
least ; but the more it is bent or unbent, the greater is
tlie resistance ; consequently, when at the height of the
wedge or tooth, it is greater than when the tooth first
begins to act. Two or three different curves for this
purpose have been imagined; one approaching nearly
to a right line, which is supposed to give the wheel
time to acquire a velocity during the passing of two-
thirds of tl;e curve, and the least resistance of the
spring, by which the other third more readily over-
comes, when the resistance to it is at the greatest.
This has been thought to give a greater extent to the
ai'c of vibration, and has been adopted by the French
artists. Another curve, where equal spaces make the
balance describe equal portions of a circle, is thought
to give the least wearing to the edg«s of the cylinder,
and is that which is practised by our 'scapement mak-
ers. Arguments equally good for either, it appears,
might be given.

"The weight and diameter of the balance, are circum-
stances very materially connected with the wearing on
the cylinder edges. Whatever will prevent this wearing,
should be carefully attended to. When the diameter is
large, the balance must of consequence be less heavy ; a
sort of sluggishness in its motion takes place, the pendu-
lum spring making great resistance to the teeth passing
the cylinder edges, and causing wearing to go rapidly on.
On the conUary, when the diameter is small, and the
•vv-eight at a proper medium, there is an alertness in the
vibration ; the momentum of the Iwlance has such force
over the pendulum spring, that it allows the teeth to
pass the edges quickly; and hence there is a less tenden-
cy to wear tiiem. The diameter of the balance should be
less than that in a verge watch of equal size, nor should
it be heavier than just not to allow setting, unless where
a going in time of winding is used. The cylinder
'scapement, on the whole, must be allowed to be a
icry excellent one; and where care is taken to have it

S

made as it ought to be, such watches will give very Escape-
good performance. Provision for oil on the cylinder in^ius.
should be mac^e as ample as can be admitted; that is, the '

pait where the tooth acts, should be as distant from ,

the notch where the wheel bottom passes as possible, I

and at the same time more distant from the upper cop. '

per plug; the lower notch should not be longer than to
give freedom to the wheel bottom to pass easily.
\\'hcn they are made long, which they frequently
are, the cylinder will break there if the watch re-
ceive a slight shock from falling. The acting part
of the tooth, as has already been noticed, should
not be too thin, nor the stems too short. If the
diameter of the balance is too great, any addition of
motive force will malvc the watch go slow; if too little,
the watch will go fast ; and if, of a proper weight and
diameter, any addition of motive force will make no
change on the time-keeping. We have made the mo-
tive force more than double, and no change took place ;
tl>e pendulum spring no doubt had its share in keep-
ing up this uniformity. Balances whose diameters
are rather small, will have a natural tendency to
cross farther, that is, the arcs of vibration will be
greater than where the diameters are great. Their
weight will be in the ratio of the squares of their dia-
meters ; from which it follows, that if the balance is Method of
taken away from a watch which has been regulated, estimating
and another put in its place, having the diameter only P^ec'se
one half of the former, before the watch could be re- of watch ba-
gulated with the same pendulum spring, the balance lances.
would require to be four times heavier than the
first. One way of estimating the force of a body
in motion, is to multiply the mass by the velocity.
Let us then calculate the respective forces of two
balances whose diameters are to one another as two to
four. The radii in this case express the velocity.
According to this principle, we shall have for the
small balance two for the radius, multiplied by eight of
the mass, equal to sixteen, and for the great one, four
of the radius by two of the mass, equal to eight ; six-
teen and eight are then the products of the mass by the
velocities ; consequently they express the force from
the centre of percussion of each balance ; and as it is
double in the small one, it is evident that the arcs of
vibration will be greater, having the faculty of over-
coming easily any resistance opposed to it by the pen-
dulum spring, witliout requiring any additional mo-
tive force.

Let us take an example done in another way, which
is the square of the product of the diameter multiplied
by the velocity or number of degrees in the vibration,
and this again multiplied by the mass or weight, so as
to compare the relative momentum of two balances of
different diameters, &c. Suppose one balance to be
.8 of an inch in diameter, the degrees of vibration
240, and the weight eight grains; the other .7 of an
inch in diameter, the arc of vibration 280', and the
weight 10 grains.

240 X .8= 192 X 1 92=36764 X 8=2941 12.
280x.V=19()X l9C=384l6x 10=384160.

The balance having the smaller diameter, has its mo-
mentum to that of the greater, as 384 is to 294. When
the arcs of vibration are great, the nearer to isochron-
ism will tlje long and short ones be.

When a little expciice in the cylinder or horizontal
'scapement is not grudged, a ruby cylinder is certain-
ly a great acquisition to prevent wearing on the edges;
if it is not steel cased, and wholly of stone, it is so
much the better, giving a little more scope to extend

IIOROLOGV.

129

the liinif* of the banking, the steel crank of the other
confining the extent of banking. There i« no doubt
a greater Ti*k of breaking than in the caaed one ; yet
tliia might be contiderably leaaeneci were seme atten-
tiea paid to make the notch which frees the bottom
of the whcd, aa haa been prapoaed in the case of the
ateal CTMndar, BO longer than itnecetaarY. It would be
•InirmMm to have the cylinder formed by the straU of the
apaNre or ruby, being placed in a rertical positiaa in-
■lend ofahorisontal ana; Tliia i* torelx attainable, when
we know that diamond tpUttera can distinguiah the strata
or layers of die Aimnank, a atone which may be suppo-
aed more compact than oUkt the ruby or aapphire. We
have seen a cylinder, wholly at stone, in a watch be-
longing to a gimtleiBan, who wao wearing it when be-
tween 70 and 80 yaon of age : he oaed fteqnently to
let it fall withont any attklwu haptwiiiiig to the

cylinckr. Three somU grift or eocka placed on the po-
tenee plate, so aa toaOoir the balance edge to come into
notcbaa ittcd for it. and having aulRcietH freedom,
woald prertnt cither the c}' Under or the cock pivot ftooi
breaking. A linle practicaahenld make the atone cylin-
der easier , and perhapa dMaper amde, than the caaed one ;
at all erents, even on equal terms, it ought to be the
prefrrable of the two. From what has already beeti said.
It spfears that the weiglR and diemelar ol the balance
are matters not mcfcly ■bitiaiy ; for if the motive
Ibntieloogmlfcrtkatoftbeibroeof tbehaiaaoe, the
watch will go Am! when ia tba laying or horisontol p»>
■tion, and «i«w when in the vertical or bangif>g poaition:
By dinriariring aitbar the motive Ibtve, or making
the balance heavier, the watch may be made to go the
in both pudtiena. The propertiea of the |^nda-
■ bttfe to this. It is in scmie
a pocket watch to have the
■• that the balanee with
ib flpriait. when in a alale by itaelf, and free of anj
the wheela, ahonkl vibrau the
of time, whether it ia in a vertical or a
We know when it is in the last,
that it wiU'oontinoe to vibrate twice the length of
that it will do in the olhar. We are humbly of
tba* this cooM be eoaw at Bat who will be at the
tfonUe and sipiea to onko each cxpafimenta as may
kadlait? Mr Eamakaw'a pivota, whb '
Jiallaw boiaa, ahoald aaae very near to
AboM Arty T*tes ^o we
of liBMnce pieuCa*
im^mm^^mt "^ toe uttKnUf oitwwfi ToiBplona bavmg mr on
*» at (f Im trui* i" enawpcing the hatbwntal 'acepeaMiN, and
nrrftamV having ^"^'f^ it to ■ ateM if
M. Facia, a aaUve of Geneva, itevlBf
art of picfving haica in nMieiy ev "7
Hone, caaw to Parfa with thia aH as a tactal ; iad not
baiag ««Q received, either by the Duka af Orlanik at
thai tiine reMt of Prance^ or by the watchaiakfln, he
repaiKd to Lendoa with it aboat the year ITOO, which
waa at that time a achool where the art of
moiv cahtvaled than at Pbria. lie wi
member of the Royal Satktf, aad having
a kind of pailwwrfiu widi a native of Prance, who had
been settled in LoadbB, whoae Mae WM Dobaufre, tliey
carried on the baiiMai of waleh.jewcUnig. * Facio'a
partner had. at thia time, oenCrived anew 'scapement: it
was a dead beat one. w hich was the thing now sooghi for.
The balance and balance- wbacl hoica of it were jeweU
led i the pallet waa made of diaaaond, fmaad from a vary

tha

eMact,
Matidi

M. Fad»

II.

short cylinder of two-tenths of an inch in diameter; Bsespe.
the upper end of the cylinder was cut down nearly mam.
one-haU* of the diameter, and flanched to the lower end •

and opposite side, rounded off from tlie circular p.irt of
the baae left at top, to the lower end of the flaiich, re-
sembling scmething like a cone bent over, and want-
ing a part of the top. Two flat balance-wheeU, having
ratchet or crown wheel sort of teeth, were on the same
arbor, the teeth of the one beinj? opposite to the mid-
dle of the spaces of the other ; the distance between
these wheel* was a little less than the diameter of the
cylinder ; the drop of the teeth in scapin^r falls on what
was left of the upper baae of the c}'linder, (the lower
baae being taken away in forming the pallet) and near
to the ei%e fomed from the flanch ; here they rested
during the time of the vibration of the balance. On the
return, the tooth gets on the flanch, and passe* over it,
during which, giving impulse to the balance, and esca-
ping at the lowt-r cn«l, a tooth of the other wheel drops
oppoaite on the same baae of the cylinder, and so on. A
watefa having this 'amptiaaiit, and bearing Oebaufre's
none, waa put for trial into the hands of Sir Isaac New«
ton, who, in shewing it to Sully in 1 704, gave a verr
flrtttering account of its perfurroance. It attracted Suf.
ly's notice very much, hut thinking it by no means
well executed, and not bring quite aatisfied with two
wheela, it waa thought that an improvement would he
made by haviiy one wheel only and two pallet.i, wnich
waa part of the acheme of the 'scapement he adopted
far hia marine time-keeper made in 1 71 1. Considering
the geniua which Solly waa allowed to poaaeaa, this waa
by no meana an improvement on Debautre's 'sca^wment.

Although an Engliahman, Sully's luroe was unknown
to his countrymen ; and wonkl have remained so, had
it not been for the acoonnta given of him by the French
mlittM, m whom he excited an emulation, and whom
he iiMyiiad with a taste to acquire such a pre-eminence
in tlicir prafeaaion aofaad been boAav unknown to them.

Jolicnle Roy, who waa intimately ai ■ ■' ! with Sully, Actanatnf

and Berthoud, are nnoommonly L <>ir encomi- the labmus

umsonhim. Soon after he had oaaipit-ti<i n.- Hpprrnticr- o''!<ul)r.
■hip with Mr CretUm, watehmafcer in London, he went ^^ *"'**
over into Holland, Germany, and Austria, and nttract- nne dmel'
ing the notice of several of the pnnoea and noliilitv, he keeper.
waa BMCfa employed by tfiem. H-
brary of Maee Eogene, the lf«BO( '
ay ^tkitmtm^ Psri$, be eagarty ^Lquirtd ilic 1- anch
Imifittfft ia muiM to laad thoai- This excite<l in him
a ■mng desire to ■•e Paria, ta which he lapalnwl aboat
the year 1713 or 171 i. under the patnmagv, and in the
Mite of the Daiwaf Araaibarg,at vbate hotel he lodged,
with a poBfiaB af flW Hnat. He had not been long
ihan^ whaa oar maiilfyiiiin I>aw of I.auri.>t»n, under
the aaihtrity of the court of Veraailles, gut him enga-
ged fa aateimab a nHmn&etery of clocks and watches.
In coawqaanea of thia he came twice to I^mdon, and
having carried away a great number of workmen at a
vast expence, and spent much money on tooU and
Other aiticica. Law began to murmur, and tlie esta-
hKahaMBt in two yean or little more fell to the ground.
This made him complain bitterly of his Iwd fortune
to a friend ; but fortunately a nobleman to whom Uiis waa
amaioiml. feeling much for the disagireableMtuati on in
wfaichSuil V waa placcd.scnt him in a present some shares
in the pofalie Amds, value IS.OOO livres, which enabled
him, for •evcral vaars afterwards, to pursue very itea-
loasly his ftvoarwa ■chenieof making a marine time-

tfa* witha

VOU XL PABT I.

iS ttmOtj, «r aauM, w<t« at this |itsfiailau la Lsadea so late as 1779.

A

13Q

HOROLOGY.

Rewards of-
fered for as-
eertaining
the longi-
tude at sea.

nebaufre's
'scapenient
possesses an
advantage
over Gra-
ham's.

Ahhi Hau-
tefeuille's
'scape-
ments.

Plate
CCCIl.
Kg. 5.

keeper to ascertain the longitude at sea. In this at-
tempt he was not so successful in his first trials, as he
had led himself to expect. It was in general believed,
however, that had he lived lie would have been the first
to have deservedly acquired one or other of the pre-
miums which were before that time offered by four of
tlie greatest maritime powers in Europe, to those who
should produce a time-keeper which could ascertain, to
a certain extent, the longitude at sea. Philip the Third,
who ascended the throne of Spain in 1 598, was the first
who proposed a reward of 1000 crowns for this inven-
tion. The states of Holland soon after followed his ex-
ample, and offered 100,000 florins. The British Parlia-
ment, in the reign of Queen Anne, voted 1620,000 ster-
ling for the same purpose ; and the Duke of Orleans,
Regent of France, in 1716, promised, in the name of the
King, 100,000 livres. Sully may literally be said to
have died a martyr to the cause in which he was enga-
ged. Having got a false address to a person who it was
said was occupied in the same pursuit with himself, he
got so overheated in his anxious and vain endeavours
to find him out, that he died in a few days after at Pa-
ris, in the month of October 1728, and was buried with
great pomp in the church of St Sulpicius. Sully act-
ed so conspicuous a part in the profession, that no apo-
logy is necessary for giving this short account of him.

It may be observed here, that Debaufre's 'scapement
has this advantage which is not in Graham's, that the
impulse is given the same in every vibration ; and the
time of rest on both sides is the same, bearing mostly
on the foot pivot end, and a little on the sides of the
pivots ; and not wholly on the sides of the pivots, as
in Graham's. Having made one or two watches, to
which this 'scapement was put, they were found to per-
form very well ; and we would recommend it to the at-
tention of 'scapement makers : A little practice will
make the execution of it very easy. The two thin steel
wheels may at pleasure be placed at any distance from
one another ; their diameters should be as large as can be
admitted between the potence foot and the verge collet.
An agate, or any hard stone for the pallet, whose height
is half the spaces between the teeth, or a little less, is
fixed on the verge or axis of the balance ; the level of the
base of the pallet on which the teeth rest being a very
little above that of the line of the centre of the balance-
wheel pinion. The teeth must be a very little under-
cut, so that the points only may rest on the pallet. The
verge should be placed more inward in the frame than
in the common contrate wheel movement, in order to
give room for the balance-wheels- The necessity of a
contrate wheel movement for this 'scapement is a trifling
objection, which will wear away in spite of prejudice.

In 1722, the Abbe Hautefeuille, who long before this
had at Paris disputed, in a process of law with Huy-
gens, the right of the invention and application of the
pendulum- spring to the balance of a watch, published
a quarto pamphlet, containing a description of three
new constructions of 'scapements for watches. One of
these was the anchor, or recoiling 'scapement, on the.
verge of which was attached a small toothed segment of
a circle, or rack, working into a pinion, which was the
axis of the balance. The idea of the axis of the ba-
lance being a pinion, seems to have been taken from the
'scapement of Huygens, with this difference only, that
the balance should not make so many revolutions as that
of Huygens, and is contrived so as to make scarcely one
revolution at every vibration. This 'scapement is the
same as it came from the hands of Hautefeuille, without
any improvement having been made upon it even to thi?

s

day, although a patent was taken out for the same in-
vention above twenty years ago, by some person in Li-
verpool. The name of lever watches, which they re-
ceived I'rom the patentees, is that which is generally gi-
ven to those having this 'scapement, which is the same
that Berthoud has described in his Esxai svrL'horlogerie,
published in 1763; see torn. ii. No. 1933, and plate
xxiii. fig. 5, of which our Figure is a copy. Ber-
thoud, under certain modifications, introduced the prin-
ciple of this 'scapement into some of his marine time-
keepers-

A very able and ingenious artist at Paris, M. Duter-
tre, who was zealous in his profession, and had consi-
derable success in his pursuits, invented, in 1724, a
new 'scapement, or rather improved that of Dr Hooke's
with two balances, which lias already been described.
The additions and improvements, however, which he
made, were so great, as to give him a sort of title to
claim it as his own, and to render it, in the opinion of
good judges, the best 'scapement by far that was known
at that time. The additions which he made, consisted
in putting another wheel upon the same arbor with,
the first, but it was considerably larger in diameter,
having the same number of teeth with the other, and
forming the principal merit of the 'scapement. The
balance arbors at one place were made rather thick-
er than usual, for the piirpo.se of having notches cut
across them, and as deep as to the centre. This part
of the arbors becomes then a semicylinder. The lar-
ger wheel, which may be called that of arrcle, or re-
jiose, is placed on its arbor, so as to correspond with
the seniicylinders and their notches, the points of
whose teeth are made ju.'-t to clear the bottom of the
notches, alterniitely pas>ing one of them, and resting
on the semicylindrical part of the other. The action of,
the two wheels shall now be explained. Let us sup-
pose, that one of the larger wheel leeth, after reposing
on one of the semicylinders, is, on the return of the vi-
bration of the balance, admitted to pass throujjh the
notch ; after having passed, a tooth of the impulse-wheel
falls on the corresponding pallet, gives impulse, carrying
it on till it escapes ; when another tooth of the wheel of
repose falls on the other semicylindtr, and rests there
until the return of the vibration of tlie other balance ;
when it passes the notch in its turn, and the corre-
sponding pallet presenting itself, is impelled by a tooth
of the impulse-wheel, and .so on. Hooke's 'scapement
had a small recoil ; the aim of Dutertre was to make a.
dead beat one of it, in which he succeeded There is
a drawing of this 'scapement in Plate xiv. fig. 4. of
Berthoud's Hisioire de Li Mesiire du Temps. He says,
" that the properties of this 'scapement are such, that
sudden shocks do not sensibly derange the vibrations ;
that the pressure of tlie wheel-teeth of arrcte on the
cylinders, corrects the impulse that the balance re-
ceives from the wheel-work, which, on the tnotive-
Ibrce being doubled, prevents the vibrations from being
affected."

In Plate xli. fig. l6. of the first volume of Thiout's
work, is a drawing of this 'scapement, modelled for that
of a clock, described at page 101. He says, " Fig. 16.
is an escapement of the Sieur Jean Baptiste Dutertre,
which has only one pallet, on, the axis of which is the
fork. The two ratchets or wheels are on the same ar-
bor, when the pallet escapes from the small ratchet ;
the larger one, which is called the ratchet or wheel of
arretc, rests on the arbor of the pallet, and leaves the
vibration to be pretty free. On the pallet's returning to
meet witl> the teeth of the small ratchet, the pallet-ar-

Dutertre'f
'scapement ■
for a watch.

Plate
CCCIl.
Fig. 6-

Dutcrtrc's

clock 'scape- ■
ment-

Fig. 7.

t

HOROLOGY.

131

k«*

bar, or cjrMnder, bein^r notched or cut across into the
eevHn, allows the wheel ot' arrcte to p«*», and the
wheel of bnpubien, after getting a araail recoil, ^'ves
new force to the ribratian ; to that in two ribrations
only one of them is accelerrtcd : Hence it was thoofrht,
that the half of the vibrations btivfifrrr, and indepen-
dent of the wheel work and its inequalities, they would
be more correct than others; but experience did not
cooilnn thii.' This is, then, the duplex 'scapement, or
the imitsl possible approach to it.

Itiavtore than fifty yean since we saw a small spring
dock havirfr this 'scapencnt, aaade by ■ rerr infjcnious
cioclraiaker of this place, whose name waa Rabat Brack-
enrigft. It may be suppmed to har« baea andc a very
lew y^vs after loMVira vorli was psDMlMfl.

In 17S7. Peter le Roy gute an account of a 'scape-
ment which he had imde, harinir one pallet on the
axia of the babncr and a noldi below it. a wheel of ar-
tHe, and one at impaW, a* deaeribed in the preceding
'scopaoMnt ; so tbai on(>-ha)f of the ribration* were in-
dependent of tho wbeet-work. I>;trrtrr clnimrd the
pretended inrtiitki of Le Roy, who, finding' it not to
answer his expectations, icave it up. 1 hjit Dutertre
OMdo the one which is represented in PUte sli. of
Thioot, we have no doobt ; attd there is unqoestion-
M» aMhority, that be bmaitlit Dr Hoeke'a to the itn-
|iro*«d Stat* whidi has jnsi been mcntionad. It is
mU, that bo bad ■site a free or detached 'scapcaaciit ;
bnt no accimiW wnalMfr iMa beas ipvcn of il

Tlw dvpIcK 'scapswwBt, as k it now eaOtd, waa ia>
tfodaead into its native eoMilnr aliont thirty yean afo or
nHffv, onder the nawte of ryrer't 'acaptnant, tno name,
it ia sapaasad, of him who pat the last hand to i«»-
p«v* tut which came in a lineal daarinl from Dr
Haoh*. In plaea of the notch bcinfr wmdm right across
the arbor, as has bren mcntifliMd bt^ire, Tyrcr'a had a
vcrr svaD cyMndrror nMtr, whoa* diameter waa .05 of
an mch, into which waa madr, in a loniptudinal ditte-
notehofflOorMdcicrrca. Tbecy-
of staal, bnt moat Aooocntly of ni-
«wbaBl<~

by. WhaathopoinUflrthatcathafthei

fall hMo the noicht they meet with a very
by tha hahnra. w what

offapose

bv tha hahnri. in what amy be called the retaraing
lihiariaii. TMa fooaae far aa to make the point of the
laoth tea Utile to Imto the notch, at the side oppania
to thai by whtah II came in. The balance on 1 11 iiiitwf.
ie now m the eome at that ribralioa when it b to
racerre inipolae fkom tha wheal, whick tdkaa place
' an the toother tha wheal of repeselaavfaw
r, and aa soon as the tooth
of hnpahaesBii^aa froaa'the pallet.— the nest tooth af
rtpaaa Ma ta test en the naml cylinder, and ao an.

Thia 'aeifaMaat af Tpn'a is mnch anpcrior to that
of the tylinihr, or hertaonlal one : it is almast inde.
pendant of oil. wuniiing aaly a very little to the points
of tha whorl teetn of lapoie. It can carrr a halaocr
af ^Mh afaaaw aMaMalna, and, when writ esecnted,

B«t there an ao asany cir-
to be attended to hi it, that
I af thsB may at times cacapa the eye of the aaoat
■d oncful ; the waldi may slop, and yet the
be in tym other aaspact aa eompMe aa
peanVe. This has affan civaa the wearer csnae to
and to sospact the qnaUtiea of his watch.
I have bten induced to abamkm
, and adopt infariar onos. The pallets
^ Tjm^s were at Ant »a«y thin. Wc fmiurntlv ur-
fad the nserarilt of having than made much thicker,
1 were pkaaad to sac that thia waa gndnally adopted.

Why should they not be made as thick as the pallet of a
detached 'scapement .> There is no 'scaperoent whicli
requires to have the balance wheel teeth more correctly
cut, or the steady pins of the cock and potence more nice-
ly 6tted to their places in the potence plate. The minu-
tiae alluded to were, too much or too little drop of the
impulse teeth on the pallet, the 'scapement not set quite
so near to beat as miglit be, the balance rather heavy, or
the points of the teeth of repose too much or to little in
on toe small cjlinder. In a good sixeable p<x-ket watch,
the wheels having fifteen teeth, the ratio of the diameter
of the wheel of repose to that of impulse mav be as .520
of an inch to -400, the cylinder .030. The angle of
'acapement will be 60 degrees, taking from the escape
of toe impulse tixith, to that of the tooth of repose fal-
linc on the cylinder ; the balance pssaci ^0* of these,
before the impuUe tooth gets again on the pallet, con-
sequently it nas only 40 degms for the acting angle
of the 'scapement. There is a variety of 'scapementt
in BerthoiHi's Hutoire, which appearea in 1802, many
of which are of very inferior note to that of Tyrcr'a, and
vet he takes no ntAioe of the latter. This is reniarka*
Lie, as lie »urrly must have seen it, considering tlie great
number of ttirra which were made.

While Dutertre was engaged with Hooke's 'scape-
ment, an artist in England, whose name is unknown, pro-
duced a 'scapement with the dead lieat, which seems at
thattime to have been the gnat object of pur.'uit. Ju-
lian Le Koy Uving got one of these watches, thowed it
to SnOy in Nuvcnwer I7<7, and told him that it was a
'acapement very destrviikr of notice. Thiout m< ntions
it as a 'scapement of M. Flamenvillr having two pallets
of repooe ; and aaya that it had much attracted the atteit-
tion of the English watch-nukcrs, who hsd made it for
thrceorfour years. (.See page 108, plate xliii. fig. S6. of
hia first volume.) With our workmen it went by the
name of the 'icapement with the tumbling pallets.' The
axis of the balance had two semi-cylindricsl pallets,
whose faces stood in the same plane or centre of the
axis; the balance wheel was the common crown wheel
one, the teeth of which rot a verv small hold of the
palleta. When escaping from the face of one |>alIot. a
tooth on theoppoahesttfedrappcdonihe stii li-

cal pan of the other pallet, where it rested >e

Cl^and coming of the vibration ; ^ettin^; uun on the
, « pve new impulse, caei^Mnf m iu turn ; the |>a]-
let on Ute uBpoaile «id of the verge rrcrivr<l a tooth on
the seni-eylindiicBJ part, and soon. After luving been
hndaaidafaraaMlWitwaa '"

mcnti.

'Scapnnent
with <mu-
tjlatdnal
«r tumfating

psllctN
Pl.*T«

CClll.
Fig.»-

of late years taken up
by aavctal, who no doubt most have thought well of it.
Aaanfc thaaa waa Kandal, a man possessed of no com-
nwn lalinia. He tnnsfonned it into one having two
crown wherl* on the «me pinion arliotir, the tops of the
teeth in tlie one pointing to the middle of the spaces
m the other, and with only one paDrt, the diameter of
the semicylinder being of any »iie. (See Plate fCf 1 1 1,
lig. I .) About thirty years ago we had tome watchrw
made with this 'scapement. and after a few years trial
gave them tip. The principle of the 'scapement is
good, aa long as the naru of it remain unimpaired,
ao<l the oil continuea msh ; but the acting parts Imv-
ing fuch a kmall hold of one another, get soon altered,
which caiues a great deviation from the rate of lime
with which it first *eU out. 'i hey cannot be expected
to last k^ng, unless with a diamond pallet, and a steel
wheel of the harde>t tiiiin.-r

The /rf or drt.> .-wiO is that in which the

greater purt of tlie v....... , ol tlie balance is free and

indepcodcot of (he wbeds, the balance wheel being

KclKlal'i
'•capcmcat.

Pl.ATK
(< LIU.
^it-l.

Fncar
'MapcmtDC

133

HOROLOGY.

JiMBpc>

oieiiu.

Free or

itctacliMl

'•c»j)«ment,

Bcrthoud's
iiioilel of a
detached
'scapcment.

then lock«d ; when unlocked, it gives impulse which
only takes place at every second vibration. In Mudgc's
detached 'scapement, the impulse is given at every vi-
bration. The progress which lias of late years been
made in improving the detached 'scapement has been
very wonderful, when we consider that half a century ago
the name of this 'scapement was unknown. The first
rude draught of any thing like it, appears to be that of
Thiout's, described at page 110 of the first volume of
his work, and shewn in Plate xliii. fig. 30, which he calls
" A 'scapement of a watch, the half of whose vibrations
appear independent of the wheel work, during the time
they are made. A hook retains the ratchet or balance
wheel ; the return of the vibration brings the pallet to its
place of being impelled by tlie wheel ; in the returning,
the hook is carried outwards, and leaves the wheel at li-
berty to strike the pallet, and so on. This sort of
'scapement cannot act without the aid of a spiral or
pendulum spring."

Peter Le Roy's 'scapement is the next step that was
made towards this invention. He contrived it in 1748,
and, like Thiout's, it has hardly ever been made use of.
Both of them have a great recoil to give the wheel be-
fore it could be disengaged, and their arcs of free vibra-
tion are not much extended. Berthoud informs us, that
in l75ihe made a model of one, which he gave to the
Koyal Academy of Sciences. Camus, on its being shown
to him at that time, told him that the late Dutertre had
made and used such a 'scapement, having a long delenl
and free vibrations. Nothing appears now to be known
of the construction of Dutertre's, and Le Roy seems to
liave acknowledged the priority of it to the one he con-
trived in 1 TiS. " My thought, or invention," he says,
" was not so new as I had imagined. Dutertre's sons,
artists of considerable repute, shewed me very soon af-
ter, a model of a watch in this way by their late father,
which the oldest Dutertre must still have. This model,
very different from my construction, is, however, the
same with respect to the end proposed."

The detached 'scapement in Le Roy's time-keeper,
which was tried at sea in I768, is very different from
that of 1748.

Berthoud, in his Traile des Horloges Marines, pub-
lished in 1773, has given, in No. 281, an account of the
principle on which the model was made in 17.54; and,
in No. 971, a particular description of the parts com-
posing it, which are represented in plate xix. fig. 4. of
that work. It may be somewhat interesting to lay be-
fore our readers what is contained in No. 281. "I
composed," says he, "in 1751., an escapement upon a
principle, of which I made a model, in which the ba-
lance makes two vibrations in the time that one tooth
only of the wheel escapes, that is to say, the time in
which the balance goes and comes back on itself; and,
at the return, the wheel escapes and restores, in one vi-
bration, the motion that the regulator or balance had
lost in two. The 'scapement-wheel is of the ratchet
sort, whose action remains suspended (while the balance
vibrates freely) by an anchor, or click, fixed to an axis
carrying a lever with a deer's-foot joint, the lever cor-
responding to a pin placed near the centre of the axis
of the balance. When the balance retrogrades, the first
vibration being made, the pin which it carries turns a
little back the dcer's-foot joint, and the balance conti-
nuing freely its course, its liberty not being disturbed
during the whole of this vibration, but by a very small
and short resistance of the deer's-foot joint spring.
When the balance comes back on itself and makes the
■econd vibration, tlie same pin which it carries raises

the deer's-foot lever in such a way, that the anchor
which it carries unlocks the wheel, in ortler that it
may restore to the balance the force which it had lost
in the first vibration. This effect is produced in the fol-
lowing manner : In the instant that the deer's-foot joint-
ed lever is raised, the wheel turns and acts upon the lever
of impulsion, formed with a pallet of steel which acts
upon the wheel, and with another arm which acts on a
steel- roller placed near the axis of the balance; and, in
the same instant that the wheel acts upon the lever of
impulsion, the second arm, which its axis carries, and
which is the greatest, stays on the roller, and the mo-
tion of the wheel is communicated to the balance al-
most without loss and without friction, and by the
least decomposition of force. As soon as the wheel
ceases to act on the lever of impulsion, it falls again,
and presents itself to another tooth." " To render the
vibrations of the balance more free and independent of
the wheel-work,'' continues Berthoud in No. 282. " and
diminish as much as possible the resistance it meets witii
at every vibration, the pin must be placed very r.ear the
centre of the balance, so that the lever may not be made
to describe a greater course than that required to render
the effect of the click perfectly sure, and while the ba-
lance turns, and makes its two vibrations, prevent only
one tooth of the wheel from escaping ; an effect which
would be dangerous, by the seconds' hand, which is
carried by the wheel, announcing more seconds, or time,
than the balance by its motion would have measured. It
was the dread of such a defect that made me then give
this 'scapement up, which, I confess, seemed to be rather
flattering ; but it did not give to the mind that security
in its effects which is so necessary, particularly in ma-
rine time-keepers, tlie use of which is of too great con-
sequence, to allow any thing suspicious in them to be
hazarded."

The principle given here by Berthoud is the same as
that of the detached 'scapements now made, although
the parts of the model are more complex. This 'scape-
ment had received a variety of modifications under his
hand. In 1768, he had five marine clocks planned to
have spring detents to their 'scapements, the lifting
spring being placed on the roller, or pallet, which recei-
ved the impulse. These were not finished till 17S2.
Subsequent improvements, made by the late Mr Arnold
and others, can hardlj' be considered as differing very
materially from those of Berthoud. This 'scapement
in pocket watches may sometimes come under such cir-
cumstances as have been noticed with Tyrer's; but no
other can well be admitted into box-chronometers, whe-
ther it is made in the manner of Arnold, or in that of
Earnshaw. In the 'scapement of Arnold, (see Fig. 2.)
that part of the face of the pallet, at the point or nearly
sOjOn meeting the cycloidal curved tooth to give impulse,
rolls, as it were, down on this curve, for one half of the
angle, and in the other goes up ; or it may be thus ex-
pressed— the curve goes in on the pallet for the first
part of the impulse, and comes out during the last. In
making this curve too circular near the point of the
tooth, as has been done by some, when the drop is on
the nice side, the pallet has to turn a little way before
the wheel can mo\e forward, which has sometimes caus-
ed stopping ; but, where attention is given to the proper
form, this is not likely to happen. In that of Earnshaw,
(see Fig. 3.) the face pf the pallet is considerably under-
cut. Here, the point of the tooth will slide up for the
first part of the impulse, and down in the last ; in the
first it seems to have little to do, and may acquire some
velocity in order to overcome the part it has to perform

Bseapv
nients.

Free or de-
tached
'iicapement

Arnold's
'scapemeBl

Plate
CCCIIK
Fig. 2.

Earnsha«
'scapKine

l-ig. 3.

i

HOROLOGY.

133

P-<ap«- in the la«t. The fiwe of the paQet bong undercut, had

- ts. been found requisite from experience, as is said, in or-

'~~^ ~~^ der to {wenct cutting or wearing;. In Berthoud's boz-

cbroiMaDa(n% or tia^'keepers, the £Ke of the pallet is

made (tn^gkl^ ar in a line to the centre. One of these,

atW twcn^ «iig*»* years goin^, the peater part of

which was front Europe to India, and in the Chinese

mmM, waa put into our hands, and neither the face of

the KmI pallet, or that of the detent, had the least ap.

paannoeof bciiig any way mariced. This was the more

iiMiitilili. M the wheel waa unccmnenly thin. It

■nat have baoi nade of very fine tsaai. The wheel

bad ten teeth ; the ratio of the diameter to that of the

roller, or pallet, waa .530 to .S40 ; the balance weighed

174gnina, andmadetwovifaratioaainatecoDd. The

balance was auapanded by a abort and weak spring,

which had bem nraken by aoow aeddent befare we got

it. The length of thk aaapenaian apring required to

be .9 of an inch, and of ao ilelicate a nature that many

i«r it befim the cfaronunieter could be
any way near to time. It seemed, indeed, to

inraience on the timing than any spiral
apring could poMibly have. Each of the balance pi-
vots turned between the rollers, which were more than
one inch in diameter ; and from them and the aospen.
aioo spnqg, perhaps, aroaa that aaae and frecdacn in
the motioo of the baknca, in ronanuaota of which the
balance wbeai taetb iMd bttle to do when impelling the
raller or palirt; and thia nay have been one canae
why the pallet Ace waa aoC eat or marfced. It may be
absarved, tbatit had tha cnaoBapiral balance firing.

of braaa and alaal, piaaod tagcthcr and rivattad t and
in the iiMKeabla end waa a screw, winch, by ita coo-
nectioB with an ana in which the cob pioa were pU>
ced, served to lignlate (or mean time. Thraa acrewa
in the balanfa wan alao need fat thia parpoae.

Whaa tba ii ii «rf the pallet wflar hv # conai.

to that of the wbooi, tha anria of

'wtUbalaaa,andtheheldonthefaceof the

win alao ba Icaa; bat tha imaidae given will be

dinet, and the cbanae of atamai, ftoBaay eonn.

bjr astamal asoCion, win ataaw vntly leaaen.

ed. InthiaanglaaMiaaMlbaiBdndadthMthatwhieh

ia made from tha dm U tlM toalb ta ila mmi^a^ the

tha paint whoa yw laa* aMma ftam tha nalB pallet

or ntiler, and tlwpaiat t0 wUdl tha *""

in rrtimiinK, afbr having paaad

Tk«B CBoiaaa'aeBBhif HdaaTi